The rRNA genes of mouse and human encode the three major RNAs of the ribosome and as such are essential for growth and development. These genes are present in high copy numbers and arranged as direct ...repeats at the Nucleolar Organizer Regions on multiple chromosomes. Not all the rRNA genes are transcriptionally active, but the molecular mechanisms that determine activity are complex and still poorly understood. Recent studies applying a novel Deconvolution Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (DChIP-Seq) technique in conjunction with conditional gene inactivation provide new insights into the structure of the active rRNA genes and question previous assumptions on the role of chromatin and histone modifications. We suggest an alternative model for the active rRNA gene chromatin and discuss how this structure is determined and maintained.
Aberrant splicing is typically attributed to splice‐factor (SF) mutation and contributes to malignancies including acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Here, we discovered a mutation‐independent means to ...extensively reprogram alternative splicing (AS). We showed that the dysregulated expression of eukaryotic translation initiation factor eIF4E elevated selective splice‐factor production, thereby impacting multiple spliceosome complexes, including factors mutated in AML such as SF3B1 and U2AF1. These changes generated a splicing landscape that predominantly supported altered splice‐site selection for ~800 transcripts in cell lines and ~4,600 transcripts in specimens from high‐eIF4E AML patients otherwise harboring no known SF mutations. Nuclear RNA immunoprecipitations, export assays, polysome analyses, and mutational studies together revealed that eIF4E primarily increased SF production via its nuclear RNA export activity. By contrast, eIF4E dysregulation did not induce known SF mutations or alter spliceosome number. eIF4E interacted with the spliceosome and some pre‐mRNAs, suggesting its direct involvement in specific splicing events. eIF4E induced simultaneous effects on numerous SF proteins, resulting in a much larger range of splicing alterations than in the case of mutation or dysregulation of individual SFs and providing a novel paradigm for splicing control and dysregulation.
Synopsis
Aberrant splicing in diseases such as AML is typically attributed to splice‐factor (SF) mutation or dysregulation of specific splicing factors. Here, eukaryotic translation initiation factor eIF4E is reported to induce broad‐range alternative splicing by simultaneously affecting multiple splicing factors.
eIF4E induces the production of several SFs simultaneously by promoting nuclear mRNA export and directly interacting with a subset of pre‐mRNAs.
A separation‐of‐function mutant of eIF4E shows that the loss of nuclear export activity severely impairs SF production.
eIF4E physically associates with several components of the major spliceosome complexes.
eIF4E interaction with RNAs is predominantly mediated by the m7G cap.
eIF4E overexpression does not lead to global transcriptomic changes but alters splice‐site selection for thousands of transcripts in cell lines and AML patient specimens.
eIF4E‐dependent splicing is dysregulated in primary high‐eIF4E AML patient samples.
Elevated expression of eIF4E leads to widescale changes in alternative splicing in the absence of splice‐factor mutations.
Transcription of the several hundred of mouse and human Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes accounts for the majority of RNA synthesis in the cell nucleus and is the determinant of cytoplasmic ribosome ...abundance, a key factor in regulating gene expression. The rRNA genes, referred to globally as the rDNA, are clustered as direct repeats at the Nucleolar Organiser Regions, NORs, of several chromosomes, and in many cells the active repeats are transcribed at near saturation levels. The rDNA is also a hotspot of recombination and chromosome breakage, and hence understanding its control has broad importance. Despite the need for a high level of rDNA transcription, typically only a fraction of the rDNA is transcriptionally active, and some NORs are permanently silenced by CpG methylation. Various chromatin-remodelling complexes have been implicated in counteracting silencing to maintain rDNA activity. However, the chromatin structure of the active rDNA fraction is still far from clear. Here we have combined a high-resolution ChIP-Seq protocol with conditional inactivation of key basal factors to better understand what determines active rDNA chromatin. The data resolve questions concerning the interdependence of the basal transcription factors, show that preinitiation complex formation is driven by the architectural factor UBF (UBTF) independently of transcription, and that RPI termination and release corresponds with the site of TTF1 binding. They further reveal the existence of an asymmetric Enhancer Boundary Complex formed by CTCF and Cohesin and flanked upstream by phased nucleosomes and downstream by an arrested RNA Polymerase I complex. We find that the Enhancer Boundary Complex is the only site of active histone modification in the 45kbp rDNA repeat. Strikingly, it not only delimits each functional rRNA gene, but also is stably maintained after gene inactivation and the re-establishment of surrounding repressive chromatin. Our data define a poised state of rDNA chromatin and place the Enhancer Boundary Complex as the likely entry point for chromatin remodelling complexes.
Transcription of the ~200 mouse and human ribosomal RNA genes (rDNA) by RNA Polymerase I (RPI/PolR1) accounts for 80% of total cellular RNA, around 35% of all nuclear RNA synthesis, and determines ...the cytoplasmic ribosome complement. It is therefore a major factor controlling cell growth and its misfunction has been implicated in hypertrophic and developmental disorders. Activation of each rDNA repeat requires nucleosome replacement by the architectural multi-HMGbox factor UBTF to create a 15.7 kbp nucleosome free region (NFR). Formation of this NFR is also essential for recruitment of the TBP-TAFI factor SL1 and for preinitiation complex (PIC) formation at the gene and enhancer-associated promoters of the rDNA. However, these promoters show little sequence commonality and neither UBTF nor SL1 display significant DNA sequence binding specificity, making what drives PIC formation a mystery. Here we show that cooperation between SL1 and the longer UBTF1 splice variant generates the specificity required for rDNA promoter recognition in cell. We find that conditional deletion of the TAF1B subunit of SL1 causes a striking depletion of UBTF at both rDNA promoters but not elsewhere across the rDNA. We also find that while both UBTF1 and -2 variants bind throughout the rDNA NFR, only UBTF1 is present with SL1 at the promoters. The data strongly suggest an induced-fit model of RPI promoter recognition in which UBTF1 plays an architectural role. Interestingly, a recurrent UBTF-E210K mutation and the cause of a pediatric neurodegeneration syndrome provides indirect support for this model. E210K knock-in cells show enhanced levels of the UBTF1 splice variant and a concomitant increase in active rDNA copies. In contrast, they also display reduced rDNA transcription and promoter recruitment of SL1. We suggest the underlying cause of the UBTF-E210K syndrome is therefore a reduction in cooperative UBTF1-SL1 promoter recruitment that may be partially compensated by enhanced rDNA activation.
The translation of RNA into protein is a dynamic process which is heavily regulated during normal cell physiology and can be dysregulated in human malignancies. Its dysregulation can impact selected ...groups of RNAs, modifying protein levels independently of transcription. Integral to their suitability for translation, RNAs undergo a series of maturation steps including the addition of the m
G cap on the 5' end of RNAs, splicing, as well as cleavage and polyadenylation (CPA). Importantly, each of these steps can be coopted to modify the transcript signal. Factors that bind the m
G cap escort these RNAs through different steps of maturation and thus govern the physical nature of the final transcript product presented to the translation machinery. Here, we describe these steps and how the major m
G cap-binding factors in mammalian cells, the cap binding complex (CBC) and the eukaryotic translation initiation factor eIF4E, are positioned to chaperone transcripts through RNA maturation, nuclear export, and translation in a transcript-specific manner. To conceptualize a framework for the flow and integration of this genetic information, we discuss RNA maturation models and how these integrate with translation. Finally, we discuss how these processes can be coopted by cancer cells and means to target these in malignancy.
The combination of Chromatin Immunoprecipitation and Massively Parallel Sequencing, or ChIP-Seq, has greatly advanced our genome-wide understanding of chromatin and enhancer structures. However, its ...resolution at any given genetic locus is limited by several factors. In applying ChIP-Seq to the study of the ribosomal RNA genes, we found that a major limitation to resolution was imposed by the underlying variability in sequence coverage that very often dominates the protein-DNA interaction profiles. Here, we describe a simple numerical deconvolution approach that, in large part, corrects for this variability, and significantly improves both the resolution and quantitation of protein-DNA interaction maps deduced from ChIP-Seq data. This approach has allowed us to determine the
organization of the RNA polymerase I preinitiation complexes that form at the promoters and enhancers of the mouse (
) and human (
) ribosomal RNA genes, and to reveal a phased binding of the HMG-box factor UBF across the rDNA. The data identify and map a "Spacer Promoter" and associated stalled polymerase in the intergenic spacer of the human ribosomal RNA genes, and reveal a very similar enhancer structure to that found in rodents and lower vertebrates.
The eukaryotic translation initiation factor eIF4E acts as a multifunctional factor that simultaneously influences mRNA processing, export, and translation in many organisms. Its multifactorial ...effects are derived from its capacity to bind to the methyl-7-guanosine cap on the 5'end of mRNAs and thus can act as a cap chaperone for transcripts in the nucleus and cytoplasm. In this review, we describe the multifactorial roles of eIF4E in major mRNA-processing events including capping, splicing, cleavage and polyadenylation, nuclear export and translation. We discuss the evidence that eIF4E acts at two levels to generate widescale changes to processing, export and ultimately the protein produced. First, eIF4E alters the production of components of the mRNA processing machinery, supporting a widescale reprogramming of multiple mRNA processing events. In this way, eIF4E can modulate mRNA processing without physically interacting with target transcripts. Second, eIF4E also physically interacts with both capped mRNAs and components of the RNA processing or translation machineries. Further, specific mRNAs are sensitive to eIF4E only in particular mRNA processing events. This selectivity is governed by the presence of cis-acting elements within mRNAs known as USER codes that recruit relevant co-factors engaging the appropriate machinery. In all, we describe the molecular bases for eIF4E's multifactorial function and relevant regulatory pathways, discuss the basis for selectivity, present a compendium of ~80 eIF4E-interacting factors which play roles in these activities and provide an overview of the relevance of its functions to its oncogenic potential. Finally, we summarize early-stage clinical studies targeting eIF4E in cancer.The eukaryotic translation initiation factor eIF4E acts as a multifunctional factor that simultaneously influences mRNA processing, export, and translation in many organisms. Its multifactorial effects are derived from its capacity to bind to the methyl-7-guanosine cap on the 5'end of mRNAs and thus can act as a cap chaperone for transcripts in the nucleus and cytoplasm. In this review, we describe the multifactorial roles of eIF4E in major mRNA-processing events including capping, splicing, cleavage and polyadenylation, nuclear export and translation. We discuss the evidence that eIF4E acts at two levels to generate widescale changes to processing, export and ultimately the protein produced. First, eIF4E alters the production of components of the mRNA processing machinery, supporting a widescale reprogramming of multiple mRNA processing events. In this way, eIF4E can modulate mRNA processing without physically interacting with target transcripts. Second, eIF4E also physically interacts with both capped mRNAs and components of the RNA processing or translation machineries. Further, specific mRNAs are sensitive to eIF4E only in particular mRNA processing events. This selectivity is governed by the presence of cis-acting elements within mRNAs known as USER codes that recruit relevant co-factors engaging the appropriate machinery. In all, we describe the molecular bases for eIF4E's multifactorial function and relevant regulatory pathways, discuss the basis for selectivity, present a compendium of ~80 eIF4E-interacting factors which play roles in these activities and provide an overview of the relevance of its functions to its oncogenic potential. Finally, we summarize early-stage clinical studies targeting eIF4E in cancer.
Cisplatin-DNA adducts act as strong decoys for the Upstream Binding Factor UBF (UBTF) and have been shown to inhibit transcription of the ribosomal RNA genes by RNA polymerase I. However, it is ...unclear if this plays a significant role in the chemotherapeutic activity of cis- or carboplatin. We find that cisplatin in fact induces a very rapid displacement of UBF from the ribosomal RNA genes and strong inhibition of ribosomal RNA synthesis, consistent with this being an important factor in its cytotoxicity. Using conditional gene deletion, we recently showed that UBF is an essential factor for transcription of the ribosomal RNA genes and for ribosome biogenesis. We now show that loss of UBF arrests cell proliferation and induces fully penetrant, rapid and synchronous apoptosis, as well as nuclear disruption and cell death, specifically in cells subjected to oncogenic stress. Apoptosis is not affected by homozygous deletion of the p53 gene and occurs equally in cells transformed by SV40 T antigens, by Myc or by a combination of Ras & Myc oncogenes. The data strongly argue that inhibition of UBF function is a major factor in the cytotoxicity of cisplatin. Hence, drug targeting of UBF may be a preferable approach to the use of the highly toxic platins in cancer therapy.
Transcription of the ribosomal RNA precursor by RNA polymerase (Pol) I is a major determinant of cellular growth, and dysregulation is observed in many cancer types. Here, we present the purification ...of human Pol I from cells carrying a genomic GFP fusion on the largest subunit allowing the structural and functional analysis of the enzyme across species. In contrast to yeast, human Pol I carries a single-subunit stalk, and in vitro transcription indicates a reduced proofreading activity. Determination of the human Pol I cryo-EM reconstruction in a close-to-native state rationalizes the effects of disease-associated mutations and uncovers an additional domain that is built into the sequence of Pol I subunit RPA1. This “dock II” domain resembles a truncated HMG box incapable of DNA binding which may serve as a downstream transcription factor–binding platform in metazoans. Biochemical analysis, in situ modelling, and ChIP data indicate that Topoisomerase 2a can be recruited to Pol I via the domain and cooperates with the HMG box domain–containing factor UBF. These adaptations of the metazoan Pol I transcription system may allow efficient release of positive DNA supercoils accumulating downstream of the transcription bubble.
Au centre du ribosome, lui-même centre de synthèse de toutes les protéines, se trouve quatre molécules d’ARN, nommées les ARNs ribosomiques. Ces ARNs sont synthétisés dans le nucléole des cellules ...eucaryotes à partir des gènes répétés en tandem, les gènes d’ARN ribosomiques. Ces gènes nécessitent une régulation très stricte de la transcription des ARN ribosomiques pour permettre un cycle cellulaire contrôlé et surtout contrôlable. En effet, un débalancement de la transcription des ARN ribosomiques a été observée dans de nombreuses maladies comme par exemple le cancer. En conséquence, l’étude de la régulation de la synthèse des ARN ribosomiques est d’une importance cruciale dans la compréhension et subséquemment le traitement de ces maladies. En raison du nombre de répétitions des gènes d’ARN ribosomiques, souvent évaluées aux alentours de 175 par génome haploïde pour les mammifères, l’étude in vivo de leur régulation est difficile par les techniques de mutagénèse. L’approche que j’ai développée durant cette thèse de doctorat est celle de l’immuno-précipitation de chromatine suivie de séquençage à haut débit (ChIP-Seq) en combinaison avec des lignées cellulaires conditionnelles pour des facteurs essentiels de la transcription ribosomique. Les gènes d’ARN ribosomique possèdent la particularité d’être transcrits grâce à une machinerie entièrement dédiée à sa transcription. Ces facteurs généraux de transcription agissent de concert pour effectuer efficacement leur rôle. Dans l’organisme modèle utilisé ici, à savoir Mus musculus, l’ARN polymérase I transcrit ces gènes avec l’aide, lors de l’initiation, des facteurs UBF, Rrn3/TIF-1A et SL-1/TIF-1B. Le facteur de terminaison TTF-1 permet de terminer la transcription de l’ARN précurseur, et joue plusieurs rôles dans la régulation de l’état des gènes. Dans un premier temps, nous avons été amenés à développer, en complément du séquençage à haut débit, une approche de déconvolution des données pour permettre d’améliorer l’interprétation subséquente. Cette approche a été validée par l’amélioration notamment des profils d’immuno-précipitation de chromatine obtenus avec l’ARN polymérase I qui montrent une distribution homogène le long des gènes d’ARNr comme montrée par la technique de Miller Spread. Cette amélioration des données a également pu mettre en avant un double rôle d’UBF en fonction soit de sa complémentarité avec SL-1 soit de son affinité pour les séquences riches en GC de l’ADN. Par la suite nous avons pu mettre en évidence la localisation des régions régulatrices et, en amont de ces régions, d’une barrière nucléosomique permettant de créer et maintenir une zone sans nucléosomes le long des gènes d’ARN ribosomiques. Cette barrière possède deux particularités. La première est d’être identifiée par les marques épigénétiques associées habituellement à l’activation de la transcription comme H3K4me3, H2A.Z ou encore l’acétylation de H2A.Z. La deuxième particularité est d’être indépendante de la présence d’UBF qui est elle-même indépendante de la transcription. Cependant, ce travail n’a pas détecté la présence des marques épigénétiques de l’activation de la transcription le long des gènes d’ARNr remettant en question certaines hypothèses sur la régulation de la transcription ribosomique. Finalement, les études en parallèle dans les cellules souche embryonnaires (mESC) et fibroblastes embryonnaires (MEF) a permis d’identifier 3 catégories de gènes ribosomiques dans une même cellule. Une première forme nucléosomale ou l’ADN est méthylé et hétérochromatique, une deuxième nucléosomale mais non méthylée et finalement une forme transcrite. Une comparaison quantitative de la synthèse d'ARNr dans les mESCs et les MEFs a montré que le nombre de gènes actifs n'est pas un facteur significatif dans la régulation de la synthèse d’ARNr. Dans des cellules souches embryonnaires, tous les gènes sont transcrits en même temps avec une faible efficacité. Dans des cellules différenciées, une faible portion des gènes est transcrite mais très efficacement, cette efficacité étant relié au nombre de polymérase en cours de transcription. Les différents profils d'interaction de Rrn3 et de PolI près du site d'initiation de la transcription suggèrent que cette différence est due à une régulation de l'initiation
At the heart of the ribosome, itself the center of synthesis of all proteins, are four RNA molecules, called ribosomal RNAs. These RNAs are synthesized in the nucleolus of eukaryotic cells from the tandemly repeated genes, the ribosomal RNA genes. A very strict regulation of the transcription of ribosomal RNA needs to be made to allow a controlled and above all a controllable cell cycle. Indeed, the imbalance of ribosomal RNA synthesis has been observed in many diseases such as cancer. Consequently, the study of transcriptional regulation of ribosomal RNAs is of crucial importance in the understanding and subsequent treatment of these diseases. Due to the number of repeats of ribosomal RNA genes, evaluated at around 175 per haploid genome for mammals, the in vivo study of their regulation by mutagenesis techniques is difficult. The approach I developed during this doctoral thesis is that of chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by high throughput sequencing (ChIP-Seq) applied to cell lines conditional for the basal transcription factors. The ribosomal RNA genes have the particularity of being transcribed thanks to an entirely dedicated transcriptional machinery. In mice, these general transcription factors act in concert to perform their role effectively. In the model organism used here, namely Mus musculus, RNA polymerase I transcribes the genes with the help, during initiation, of the factors UBF, Rrn3 / TIF-1A and SL-1 / TIF-1B. The TTF-1 termination factor makes it possible to terminate transcription of precursor ribosomal RNA, and also plays roles in gene regulation. In addition to high-throughput sequencing, we have developed a deconvolution approach to improve the interpretation of ChIP-Seq data. This approach has been validated by the improvement in particular of immunoprecipitation profiles obtained for RNA polymerase I that confirm the electron microscopy images of Miller spread type. This improvement of the data could also highlight a dual role of UBF depending on its complementarity with SL-1 and its affinity for GC-rich sequences of DNA. Subsequently we have been able to highlight the upstream localization of the regulatory regions and of a nucleosome barrier allowing to create and maintain a zone without nucleosomes along the rRNA genes. This barrier has two peculiarities, the first is that it contains the epigenetic marks usually associated with the activation of transcription such as H3K4me3, H2A.Z or the acetylation of H2A.Z. The second particularity is that it is independent of the presence of UBF, which is itself independent of transcription. Challenging certain assumptions about the regulation of ribosomal transcription, our work did not detect the presence of epigenetic markers of transcriptional activation throughout the rRNA gene body. Finally, parallel studies in embryonic stem cells (ESC) and embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) made it possible to identify 3 categories of ribosomal genes in the same cell. First, a heterochromatic DNA methylated and nucleosomal form, a nucleosomal but non-DNA methylated form, and finally a transcribed form. A quantitative comparison of rRNA synthesis in ESCs and MEFs has shown that the number of active genes is not a significant factor in the regulation of rRNA synthesis. In embryonic cells, all genes are transcribed at the same time with low efficiency. In differentiated cells, a small portion of the genes are transcribed but very efficiently, this efficiency being related to the number of polymerase being transcribed. The different interaction profiles of Rrn3 and PolI near the transcription initiation site suggest that this difference is due to the regulation of initiation.
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