Abstract
Neutrophils are an essential part of the innate immune system. To study their importance, experimental studies often aim to deplete these cells, generally by injecting anti-Ly6G or anti-Gr1 ...antibodies. However, these approaches are only partially effective, transient or lack specificity. Here we report that neutrophils remaining after anti-Ly6G treatment are newly derived from the bone marrow, instead of depletion escapees. Mechanistically, newly generated, circulating neutrophils have lower Ly6G membrane expression, and consequently reduced targets for anti-Ly6G-mediated depletion. To overcome this limitation, we develop a double antibody-based depletion strategy that enhances neutrophil elimination by anti-Ly6G treatment. This approach achieves specific, durable and controlled reduction of neutrophils in vivo, and may be suitable for studying neutrophil function in experimental models.
Neutrophils have been extensively described in the pathophysiology of autoimmune and infectious diseases. Accumulating evidence also suggests the important role of neutrophils in cancer progression ...through their interaction with cancer and immune cells in blood and in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Most studies have described neutrophils as key drivers of cancer progression, due to their involvement in various tumor promoting functions including proliferation, aggressiveness, and dissemination, as well as in immune suppression. However, such studies were focusing on late-stages of tumorigenesis, in which chronic inflammation had already developed. The role of tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs) at early stages of tumor development remains poorly described, though recent findings indicate that early-stage TANs may display anti-tumor properties. Beyond their role at tumor site, evidence supported by NLR retrospective studies and functional analyses suggest that blood neutrophils could also actively contribute to tumorigenesis. Hence, it appears that the phenotype and functions of neutrophils vary greatly during tumor progression, highlighting their heterogeneity. The origin of pro- or anti-tumor neutrophils is generally believed to arise following a change in cell state, from resting to activated. Moreover, the fate of neutrophils may also involve distinct differentiation programs yielding various subsets of pro or anti-tumor neutrophils. In this review, we will discuss the current knowledge on neutrophils heterogeneity across different tissues and their impact on tumorigenesis, as well as neutrophil-based therapeutic strategies that have shown promising results in pre-clinical studies, paving the way for the design of neutrophil-based next generation immunotherapy.
Toll-like receptors (TLR) are essential components of the innate immune system. Several accessory proteins, such as UNC93B1, are required for transport and activation of nucleic acid sensing ...Toll-like receptors in endosomes. Here, we show that BAD-LAMP (LAMP5) controls TLR9 trafficking to LAMP1
late endosomes in human plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC), leading to NF-κB activation and TNF production upon DNA detection. An inducible VAMP3
LAMP2
LAMP1
endolysosome compartment exists in pDCs from which TLR9 activation triggers type I interferon expression. BAD-LAMP-silencing enhances TLR9 retention in this compartment and consequent downstream signalling events. Conversely, sustained BAD-LAMP expression in pDCs contributes to their lack of type I interferon production after exposure to a TGF-β-positive microenvironment or isolation from human breast tumours. Hence, BAD-LAMP limits interferon expression in pDCs indirectly, by promoting TLR9 sorting to late endosome compartments at steady state and in response to immunomodulatory cues.TLR9 is highly expressed by plasmacytoid dendritic cells and detects nucleic acids, but to discriminate between host and microbial nucleic acids TLR9 is sorted into different endosomal compartments. Here the authors show that BAD-LAMP limits type 1 interferon responses by sorting TLR9 to late endosomal compartments.
Increased concentrations of extracellular chromatin are observed in cancer, sepsis, and inflammatory autoimmune diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) or rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In SLE ...and RA, extracellular chromatin may behave as a danger-associated molecular pattern (DAMP). Polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) are described as typical pro-inflammatory cells but possess also immunoregulatory properties. They are activated in SLE and RA but surprisingly remain moderately studied in these diseases, and especially the disease-associated stimuli triggering PMN activation are still not completely characterized. PMN express plasma membrane carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule (CEACAM) 8 (CD66b) and secrete a soluble form of CEACAM8 after activation. Soluble CEACAM8 has in turn immunoregulatory functions. However, few natural stimuli inducing soluble CEACAM8 secretion by PMN have been identified. Here we demonstrate for the first time that extracellular chromatin triggers secretion of soluble CEACAM8 by primary human PMN. Priming of PMN was not required. Secretion was associated with activation of PMN. Similar induction of soluble CEACAM8 release was observed with purified mono-nucleosomes as well as long chromatin fragments and occurred in a time-dependent and concentration-dependent manner. Results indicate that chromatin induces both neo-synthesis of soluble CEACAM8 and release of soluble CEACAM8 through degranulation. In addition, we report the presence of soluble CEACAM8 at high concentration in the synovial fluid of RA patients. Thus, we describe here a novel mechanism by which a natural DAMP, with inflammatory properties in SLE and RA, induces soluble CEACAM8 secretion by activated PMN with potential immunoregulatory consequences on other immune cells, including PMN.
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a severe autoimmune disease of unknown etiology. The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I-related chain A (MICA) and B (MICB) are stress-inducible cell ...surface molecules. MICA and MICB label malfunctioning cells for their recognition by cytotoxic lymphocytes such as natural killer (NK) cells. Alterations in this recognition have been found in SLE. MICA/MICB can be shed from the cell surface, subsequently acting either as a soluble decoy receptor (sMICA/sMICB) or in CD4
T-cell expansion. Conversely, NK cells are frequently defective in SLE and lower NK cell numbers have been reported in patients with active SLE. However, these cells are also thought to exert regulatory functions and to prevent autoimmunity. We therefore investigated whether, and how, plasma membrane and soluble MICA/B are modulated in SLE and whether they influence NK cell activity, in order to better understand how MICA/B may participate in disease development. We report significantly elevated concentrations of circulating sMICA/B in SLE patients compared with healthy individuals or a control patient group. In SLE patients, sMICA concentrations were significantly higher in patients positive for anti-SSB and anti-RNP autoantibodies. In order to study the mechanism and the potential source of sMICA, we analyzed circulating sMICA concentration in Behcet patients before and after interferon (IFN)-α therapy: no modulation was observed, suggesting that IFN-α is not intrinsically crucial for sMICA release
. We also show that monocytes and neutrophils stimulated
with cytokines or extracellular chromatin up-regulate plasma membrane MICA expression, without releasing sMICA. Importantly, in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from healthy individuals stimulated
by cell-free chromatin, NK cells up-regulate CD69 and CD107 in a monocyte-dependent manner and at least partly
MICA-NKG2D interaction, whereas NK cells were exhausted in SLE patients. In conclusion, sMICA concentrations are elevated in SLE patients, whereas plasma membrane MICA is up-regulated in response to some lupus stimuli and triggers NK cell activation. Those results suggest the requirement for a tight control
and highlight the complex role of the MICA/sMICA system in SLE.
Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) represent one of the first lines of defense against pathogens. TLR9 is normally expressed in endosomes/lysosomes where it is activated by pathogen‐derived DNA. ...Here we show that freshly isolated human and mouse primary PMNs express TLR9 at the cell surface ex vivo. Moreover, surface TLR9 expression is upregulated upon activation of PMNs with different stimuli and not only TLR9 agonists. Importantly, surface TLR9 is processed, active, and functional. TLR9 ligands, oligo‐nucleotides containing unmethylated CpG motifs, indeed bind to surface TLR9 and binding was strongly observed at the cell surface of human cells expressing surface TLR9 and at the surface of WT but not TLR9‐deficient mouse PMNs. Finally, CpG oligonucleotides cross‐linked onto a solid phase and having no access to intracellular TLR9 are able to trigger cell surface TLR9 and induce neutrophil activation, even when endosomal acidification is inhibited. This is the first demonstration of a functional TLR9 expressed at the cell surface of human primary cells. This pathway may be triggered when pathogen‐derived TLR9 ligands cannot reach the endosome, offering a rescue mechanism for neutrophil activation.
Objectives
To better understand how immune responses may be harnessed against breast cancer, we investigated which immune cell types and signalling pathways are required for spontaneous control of a ...mouse model of mammary adenocarcinoma.
Methods
The NOP23 mammary adenocarcinoma cell line expressing epitopes derived from the ovalbumin model antigen is spontaneously controlled when orthotopically engrafted in syngeneic C57BL/6 mice. We combined this breast cancer model with antibody‐mediated depletion of lymphocytes and with mutant mice affected in interferon (IFN) or type 1 conventional dendritic cell (cDC1) responses. We monitored tumor growth and immune infiltration including the activation of cognate ovalbumin‐specific T cells.
Results
Breast cancer immunosurveillance required cDC1, NK/NK T cells, conventional CD4+ T cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). cDC1 were required constitutively, but especially during T‐cell priming. In tumors, cDC1 were interacting simultaneously with CD4+ T cells and tumor‐specific CTLs. cDC1 expression of the XCR1 chemokine receptor and of the T‐cell‐attracting or T‐cell‐activating cytokines CXCL9, IL‐12 and IL‐15 was dispensable for tumor rejection, whereas IFN responses were necessary, including cDC1‐intrinsic signalling by STAT1 and IFN‐γ but not type I IFN (IFN‐I). cDC1 and IFNs promoted CD4+ and CD8+ T‐cell infiltration, terminal differentiation and effector functions. In breast cancer patients, high intratumor expression of genes specific to cDC1, CTLs, CD4+ T cells or IFN responses is associated with a better prognosis.
Conclusion
Interferons and cDC1 are critical for breast cancer immunosurveillance. IFN‐γ plays a prominent role over IFN‐I in licensing cDC1 for efficient T‐cell activation.
Type 1 conventional dendritic cells (cDC1) cross‐present tumor antigens to CD8+ T cells. Understanding the regulation of their antitumor functions is important. In this study, we show that cell‐intrinsic STAT1/IFN‐γ signalling licenses cDC1 for efficient CD4+ and CD8+ T‐cell activation during breast cancer immunosurveillance, as assessed by using a mouse mammary adenocarcinoma orthotopic transplantation model combined with mutant animals enabling cDC1‐specific targeting.
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NET), produced by activated polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN), are supposed to play a role in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), a chronic inflammatory ...autoimmune disease characterized by anti-citrullinated protein antibodies (ACPA). Indeed, NET contain citrullinated autoantigens and some RA autoantibodies recognize NET. However, the mechanisms by which NET trigger or perpetuate the inflammatory process in RA are hitherto not elucidated. We hypothesized that, in addition to citrullination, NET might also contain stimulatory proteins and directly activate inflammatory target cells, as PMN and macrophages.
NET antigenic and inflammatory properties were analyzed in 157 healthy donors (HD) and RA patients, the largest analysis reported so far. Primary PMN and monocyte-derived macrophages were isolated and immunoglobulin G (IgG) purified. NET were induced (NETosis), isolated and quantified. NET antigenicity was analyzed by fluorescence microscopy. PMN and macrophages were stimulated with NET with/without ACPA, C1q, LL-37 or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and cell activation was estimated by flow cytometry and ELISA.
PMN from RA patients produced more NET than HD PMN. We next dissected how NET mechanistically affect inflammatory cells. Particularly, we show for the first time that RA and HD NET activated both resting macrophages and PMN, but importantly RA NET were more stimulatory, leading to secretion of inflammatory cytokines and up-regulation of HLA/CD86/CD11b. IgG from ACPA-positive RA patients specifically recognized RA and even HD NET. Nevertheless, NET-induced cell activation occurs independently of immune complex formation with ACPA. Likewise, endosomal acidification was not required. Notably, we also report that complement C1q increased the NET stimulatory activity on macrophages only, due to higher expression of C1q receptors, which was further supported by the LL-37 antimicrobial peptide. In contrast, NET specifically inhibited interleukin (IL)-6 secretion by LPS-activated macrophages and not PMN, especially with C1q/LL-37. This inhibition was not mediated by NET-derived proteases or LPS neutralization and was associated with the simultaneous induction of IL-10 secretion.
We show that NET possess both pro- and anti-inflammatory properties depending on target cells, their activation levels and C1q/LL-37. Thus, independently of ACPA, NET modulate RA chronic inflammation via this new dual activity we identified. In addition, NET may trigger autoimmunity in RA as ACPA recognize NET antigens but not non-activated PMN. Therefore, we conclude that excess of NETosis together with enhanced NET activity participate to RA pathogenesis at different levels.
Dual activity of NET. Activated PMN enter NETosis in response to some stimuli. In RA, PMN are significantly more sensitive to NETosis triggering. These NET directly activate (pink arrows) steady state PMN (left) and macrophages (MΦ, right), leading to strong IL-8, TNF and IL-6 secretion (three important cytokines in RA) but low IL-10 induction, i.e. a pro-inflammatory profile. In addition, RA NET are significantly more stimulatory than normal NET. Although NET are recognized by ACPA, the resulting immune complexes do not clearly enhance PMN and MΦ response to NET. Likewise, endosomal TLR are probably not involved in NET sensing. Regarding MΦ, NET-induced activation is specifically increased in the presence of DNA-binding molecules like C1q and LL-37 (blue arrows). C1q in combination with LL-37 carry NET to PMN and MΦ which express surface C1q and LL-37 receptors (C1qR, LL-37-R). Because MΦ express much more C1qR than PMN, MΦ (and not PMN) activation by NET is enhanced by C1q or C1q/LL-37. On the contrary, NET induce an anti-inflammatory profile in strongly-activated MΦ but not PMN (green arrows). Indeed, NET specifically (partly) inhibit secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-6 by MΦ in response to LPS, especially in the presence of both C1q and LL-37, and inversely enhance IL-10 secretion by those MΦ. Display omitted
•NET are pro-inflammatory and directly activate RESTING neutrophils and macrophages.•NET from RA patients are more stimulatory than NET from healthy donors.•On the contrary, NET are anti-inflammatory on strongly ACTIVATED macrophages only.•C1q enhances NET regulatory activities on macrophages, due to high C1q receptors expression, especially with LL-37.•NET have a dual immunoregulatory activity depending on target cells, without requirement of ACPA.
Interferon (IFN) α is a key immunoregulatory cytokine secreted by activated plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDC) that constitute less than 1% of leucocytes. IFNα plays an important role in the ...pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Nevertheless, the natural IFNα inducers in SLE as well as the different IFNα secreting cell types are only partially characterised.
Chromatin was purified from calf thymus. Human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), neutrophils and mouse bone marrow neutrophils were purified and cultured with different stimuli. IFNα production was estimated by flow cytometry, ELISA and a bioassay, and gene expression by quantitative real time PCR. Neutrophil activation and NETosis were analysed by flow cytometry, ELISA and confocal microscopy.
Neutrophils produced a bioactive IFNα on stimulation with purified chromatin. IFNα secretion was observed with steady state neutrophils purified from 56 independent healthy individuals and autoimmune patients in response to free chromatin and not chromatin containing immune complexes. Chromatin induced IFNα secretion occurred independently of Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9). Neutrophil priming by granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor or IFNα was not necessary but PBMC sustained IFNα secretion by neutrophils. PDC were 27 times more efficient than neutrophils but blood neutrophils were 100 times more frequent than PDC. Finally, neutrophil activation by chromatin was associated with NETosis and DNA sensor upregulation.
Neutrophils have the capability of producing IFNα on selective triggering, and we identified a natural lupus stimulus involved, unveiling a new mechanism involved in SLE. Neutrophils represent another important source of IFNα and important targets for future therapies aimed at influencing IFNα levels.
La polyarthrite rhumatoïde (PR) est le rhumatisme inflammatoire le plus fréquent dont l’étiologie reste inconnue. Le rôle de l’immunité adaptative est bien décrit dans cette maladie auto-immune ...(auto-anticorps anti protéines citrullinées (ACPA)) mais le rôle de l’immunité innée reste peu étudié, en particulier l’impact des polynucléaires neutrophiles (PNN) et de certaines molécules, comme le TLR9 (Toll-like receptor 9) ou la protéine C1q. Les PNN, cellules clé dans l’inflammation et la lutte contre les pathogènes peuvent faire le lien entre immunité innée et adaptative. Ils pourraient avoir d’autres fonctions que celles communément admises. Le TLR9 reconnaît les ADN viraux et bactériens mais pourraient reconnaitre des ligands endogènes de la PR. C1q est le membre du système du complément qui initie l’activation de la voie classique. Il reconnait des complexes immuns, formés dans certains cas d’ACPA, mais aussi d’autres ligands. L’objectif de ce travail était de mieux comprendre certains mécanismes de l’immunité innée, parfois non décrits, qui pourraient être impliqués dans la PR. Tout d’abord, nous avons montré que les PNN expriment un TLR9 de surface fonctionnel en plus du TLR9 normalement présent dans les endosomes, et produisent de l’interféron (IFN)-α, cytokine principalement produite par les cellules dendritiques plasmacytoïdes. Ces nouvelles fonctions pourraient participer aux phénomènes inflammatoires retrouvés dans certaines maladies auto-immunes. Le modèle d’arthrite expérimentale au collagène nous a permis de montrer que le TLR9 n’est pas nécessaire au développement de l’arthrite et que C1q est essentiel dans les phases précoces de l’inflammation. Les expériences faites chez l’homme confirment ces résultats car le TLR9 n’est pas surexprimé chez les patients PR alors que la capacité des leucocytes du sang à lier C1q est corrélée à l’activité de la maladie. Ce travail ouvre de nouvelles perspectives sur le rôle de l’immunité innée dans la PR.
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune inflammatory and disabling disease with unknown etiology. Many studies have shown the involvement of adaptative immunity. Especially autoantibodies such as anti-citrullinated protein antibodies (ACPA) are specific for this pathology. However, the role of innate immunity is not much studies, in particular polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) and some molecules, such as TLR9 (Toll-like receptor 9) or C1q. PMN are key cells involved in inflammation and pathogen elimination and can link innate adaptative immunity. All PMN functions are not known. TLR9 recognizes pathogen-derived DNA and even self DNA under certain circumstances. TLR9 might also recognize damage-associated molecular patterns found in RA. C1q is the first component of the classical complement pathway and is activated by immune complexes, potentially containing ACPA. It can also recognize apoptotic cells. The aim of this study was to better understand innate immune mechanisms, sometimes not described, potentially involved in RA. We first demonstrate that PMN express a functional TLR9 at the cell surface, in addition to the normal endosomal expression. They can also produce interferon (IFN)-α described as a plasmacytoid dentritic cell cytokine. Those new PMN functions might participate in inflammatory events found in some autoimmune diseases.We demonstrated that TLR9 is not involved in collagen-induced arthritis model whereas C1q is absolutely required, especially in early steps. Human experiments confirm those results : RA patients do not over-express TLR9 and C1q binding by PMN is correlated with disease activity. All those results offer new insights in the involvement of innate immunity in RA.
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