Outdoor urban ventilation in a real complex urban area is investigated by introducing a new ventilation indicator – the “air delay”. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations are performed using ...the 3D steady Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) and Large Eddy Simulation (LES) approaches. The up-to-date literature shows the lack of detailed evaluations of the two approaches for real compact urban areas. This study further presents a systematic evaluation of steady RANS and LES for the assessment of the ventilation conditions in a dense district in Nicosia, Cyprus. The ventilation conditions within the urban area are investigated by calculating the distribution of the age of air. To better assess the outdoor ventilation, a new indicator, the “air delay” is introduced as the difference between the local mean age of air at an urban area and that in an empty domain with the same computational settings, allowing the comparison of the results in different parts of the domain, without impact of the boundary conditions. CFD results are validated using wind-tunnel measurements of mean wind speed and turbulence intensity performed for the same urban area. The results show that LES can accurately predict the mean wind speed and turbulence intensity with the average deviations of about 6% and 14%, respectively, from the wind-tunnel measurements while for the steady RANS, these are 8% and 31%, respectively. The steady RANS simulations overestimate the local mean air delay. The deviation between the two approaches is 52% at pedestrian level (2 m).
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•Wind tunnel and CFD are used to evaluate ventilation conditions in real urban areas.•RANS and LES are systematically evaluated to predict ventilation conditions.•New indicator “air delay” is introduced to better assess outdoor ventilation.•Steady RANS overestimates the local mean air delay in urban areas.•Average deviation steady RANS-LES in local mean air delay is 52% at pedestrian level.
The breathability capacity and its spatial variation within an inhomogeneous urban area is investigated by examining the air flow and the induced flow exchange processes inside a real neighbourhood ...area of central London. The variation of the exchange velocity (as an index of city breathability) is interpreted in association with the local urban geometrical parameters and hence geometrical inhomogeneity. Numerical studies addressing flow exchange processes in urban areas have addressed so far rather idealised homogeneous geometries (e.g. Hamlyn and Britter, 2005; Salizzoni et al., 2009; Buccolieri et al., 2010; Hang et al., 2009 and 2010). This work analyses the results obtained from a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation study using a Reynolds–Average–Navier–Stokes (RANS) solver to study the flow and induced exchange processes in the area around the Marylebone Road and Gloucester Place intersection modelled at a 1:200 scale, with the wind direction blowing in the direction of the Marylebone street axis. Flow visualisations from the numerical results confirm that the particular building shapes and street canyon geometries determine the shape and size of vortical structures that are present in the flow field and thereby the exchange processes with the flow above. By considering appropriate control volumes enclosing each building, the exchange velocities, UE, were deduced and found to range between 0.5% and 13% of the characteristic velocity above the urban canopy Uref, which was referenced at a height 2.5 times of the building height. The range of the exchange velocity coefficient UE/Uref is higher than that observed in idealised regular cube arrays, mainly due to the enhanced flow mixing associated with the inhomogeneity of the urban geometry and particularly with tall buildings. This work may provide useful insight to urban designers and planners interested in examining the variation of city breathability as a local dynamic morphological parameter with the local building packing density.
► The breathability capacity in an inhomogeneous urban area in central London is investigated. ► The breathability capacity as quantified by an exchange velocity is examined using Computational Fluid Dynamics simulations. ► The spatial variation of the local breathability is deduced in relation to the local urban packing density variation. ► The exchange velocity in inhomogeneous areas is found higher than in idealised geometries of equivalent packing density. ► The difference in exchange velocity is mainly due to the enhanced flow mixing associated with the urban inhomogeneity.
In this work we investigate the influence of real world conditions, including heterogeneity and natural variability of background wind, on the air flow and pollutant concentrations in a heterogeneous ...urban street canyon using both a series of field measurements and controlled laboratory experiments. Field measurements of wind velocities and Carbon Monoxide (CO) concentrations were taken under field conditions in a heterogeneous street in a city centre at several cross-sections along the length of the street (each cross-section being of different aspect ratio). The real field background wind was in fact observed to be highly variable and thus different Intensive Observation Periods (IOPs) represented by a different mean wind velocity and different wind variability were defined. Observed pollution concentrations reveal high sensitivity to local parameters: there is a bias towards the side closer to the traffic lane; higher concentrations are found in the centre of the street as compared to cross-sections closer to the junctions; higher concentrations are found at 1.5 height from the ground than at 2.5 m height, all of which are of concern regarding pedestrian exposure to traffic-related pollution. A physical model of the same street was produced for the purpose of laboratory experiments, making some geometrical simplifications of complex volumes and extrusions. The physical model was tested in an Atmospheric Boundary Layer water channel, using simultaneously Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) and Planar Laser Induced Fluorescence (PLIF), for flow visualisation as well as for quantitative measurement of concentrations and flow velocities. The wind field conditions were represented by a steady mean approach velocity in the laboratory simulation (essentially representing periods of near-zero wind variability). The laboratory investigations showed a clear sensitivity of the resulting flow field to the local geometry and substantial three-dimensional flow patterns were observed throughout the modelled street. The real-field observations and the laboratory measurements were compared. Overall, we found that lower variability in the background wind does not necessarily ensure a better agreement between the airflow velocity measured in the field and in the lab. In fact, it was observed that in certain cross sections, the airflow was more affected by the particular complex architectural features such as building extrusions and balconies, which were not represented in the simplified physical model tested in the laboratory, than by the real wind field variability. For wind speed comparisons the most favourable agreement (36.6% of the compared values were within a factor of 2) was found in the case of lowest wind variability and in the section with the most simple geometry where the physical lab model was most similar to the real street. For wind direction comparisons the most favourable agreement (45.5% of the compared values was within ±45°) was found in the case with higher wind variability but in the cross-sections with more homogeneous geometrical features. Street canyons are often simplified in research and are often modelled as homogenous symmetrical canyons under steady flow, for practical purposes; our study as a whole demonstrates that natural variability and heterogeneity play a large role in how pollution disperses throughout the street, and therefore further detail in models is vital to understand real world conditions.
•Flow in heterogeneous street canyons is much more complex than in simplified homogeneous street canyon models.•Real street canyons show high variability of airflow and pollution distribution.•Airflow patterns in the street within a limited intense observational time period do not relate clearly to background wind.•Pollution dispersion sensitive to local street design; parked cars and large balconies may have a significant effect.•Air pollution concentrations are higher in the middle of the street, away from the junctions and at pedestrian height.
This work examines long-term measurements of major criteria pollutants concentrations in an urban station in South-Eastern Mediterranean, in Nicosia – Cyprus, which is susceptible both to ...transboundary air pollution transport from Sahara-dust events as well as to evaporative transport of sea-sprays. The work investigates in particular the role of such multi-scale contributions in the urban air quality measurements, which are important considerations in the assessment of the effectiveness of any mitigation policies implemented by regulatory authorities. Attention is drawn in the regional-scale component of the particulate matter concentrations (PM10; ≤10 μm in diameter) and its contribution in the local measurements. Hourly averaged data of CO, NOx and PM10 concentrations as well as of meteorological parameters were collected from the Air Quality Monitoring Station (AQMS) of the University of Cyprus over a period of more than 5 years (2008–13) and were analysed. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) was used to identify chemical characteristics of PM10 and to attribute it to possible sources. A total of 321 days over the entire period were found to exceed the daily limit value of 50 μg/m3 for PM10 concentrations which corresponds to ∼19% of the actual monitored time. Numerical simulations using the Dust REgional Atmospheric Model from Barcelona Supercomputing Center (BSC/DREAM) gave a strong indication that PM10 exceedances were associated with the high regional background dust concentrations during westerly winds. It was also found that despite the implementation of tighter regulations for vehicular and industrial emissions in Europe, the monthly average concentration values of criteria pollutants do not exhibit any falling trend.
•Long-term monitoring data of urban air quality in South-East Mediterranean is assessed.•Background concentrations of CO, NOx and PM10 are deduced.•Multi-scale contributions (beyond local sources) are identified and analysed.•SEM results show mineral dust and sea spray as main sources of airborne particles.•Improved local mitigation policies do not reflect reduction in pollutants' concentrations.
Sand and dust storms (SDS) are a major disruptor in both the source areas where they occur and at distant locations. This critical review aims to address the question of whether mitigation and ...adaptation measures have been or can be implemented and what is the optimal scale of their implementation to negate the impacts of SDS in Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR)? Measures which differ in approach are also assessed by recording their successes, failures, and future challenges. We conclude that developing and implementing appropriate mitigation or adaptation measures for SDS at the local level is feasible but, at a wider scale, is a new challenge. This challenge is even more complex in areas like the EMR and the SDS sources affecting it, as it is a crossroad of air masses originating from three major SDS areas, which exhibit economic, political, and social diversity. This review also aims to identify successful mitigation strategies that have been used for similar environmental issues and to draw attention to the lack of adaptation measures in the region. This critical synthesis will serve as a guide for public stakeholders considering measures to mitigate or adapt to SDS based on their effectiveness and the area of implementation.
The purpose of this study is to assess the impact of the lockdown measures in 2020 on the urban air quality in Nicosia capital city, in Cyprus—an island-country in the East Mediterranean—which is ...often affected by transboundary dust pollution. The study focuses on three criteria pollutants, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and Particulate Matter (PM10), taken from three Air Quality Monitoring Stations; two urban stations and one reference-background. The results of this study show that the decrease in traffic, which is the main source of high concentrations of pollutants in the urban area, reached up to 66.5% during the lockdown. At the beginning of the lockdown period, it exhibited a downward trend of 29% for CO concentration, and downward trend 43% for NO2 and PM10 concentrations. The NO2 concentration exhibited an upward trend towards the end of the lockdown; with the indication that this was due to meteorological conditions relevant to the monitoring stations and the transport of NO2 concentrations from sources that cannot be tracked. PM10 concentrations exhibited a varying behaviour as observed in the trends, where the decreasing trend was followed by an increasing trend due to transboundary air pollution episodes occurring in the same period.
This work investigates the role of materials selected for different urban surfaces (e.g. on building walls, roofs and pavements) in the intensity of the urban heat island (UHI) phenomenon. Three ...archetypal street-canyon geometries are considered, reflecting two-dimensional canyon arrays with frontal packing densities (λ
f
) of 0.5, 0.25 and 0.125 under direct solar radiation and ground heating. The impact of radiative heat transfer in the urban environment is examined for each of the different built packing densities. A number of extreme heat scenarios were modelled in order to mimic conditions often found at low- to mid-latitudes dry climates. The investigation involved a suite of different computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations using the Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes equations for mass and momentum coupled with the energy equation as well as using the standard k-ε turbulence model. Results indicate that a higher rate of ventilation within the street canyon is observed in areas with sparser built packing density. However, such higher ventilation rates were not necessarily found to be linked with lower temperatures within the canyon; this is because such sparser geometries are associated with higher heat transfer from the wider surfaces of road material under the condition of direct solar radiation and ground heating. Sparser canyon arrays corresponding to wider asphalt street roads in particular, have been found to yield substantially higher air temperatures. Additional simulations indicated that replacing asphalt road surfaces in streets with concrete roads (of different albedo or emissivity characteristics) can lead up to a ~5 °C reduction in the canyon air temperature in dry climates. It is finally concluded that an optimized selection of materials in the urban infrastructure design can lead to a more effective mitigation of the UHI phenomenon than the optimisation of the built packing density.
The mineralogical composition of airborne dust particles is an important but often neglected parameter for several physiochemical processes, such as atmospheric radiative transfer and ocean ...biochemistry. We present the development of the METAL-WRF module for the simulation of the composition of desert dust minerals in atmospheric aerosols. The new development is based on the GOCART-AFWA dust module of WRF-Chem. A new wet deposition scheme has been implemented in the dust module alongside the existing dry deposition scheme. The new model includes separate prognostic fields for nine (9) minerals: illite, kaolinite, smectite, calcite, quartz, feldspar, hematite, gypsum, and phosphorus, derived from the GMINER30 database and also iron derived from the FERRUM30 database. Two regional model sensitivity studies are presented for dust events that occurred in August and December 2017, which include a comparison of the model versus elemental dust composition measurements performed in the North Atlantic (at Izaña Observatory, Tenerife Island) and in the eastern Mediterranean (at Agia Marina Xyliatos station, Cyprus Island). The results indicate the important role of dust minerals, as dominant aerosols, for the greater region of North Africa, South Europe, the North Atlantic, and the Middle East, including the dry and wet depositions away from desert sources. Overall, METAL-WRF was found to be capable of reproducing the relative abundances of the different dust minerals in the atmosphere. In particular, the concentration of iron (Fe), which is an important element for ocean biochemistry and solar absorption, was modeled in good agreement with the corresponding measurements at Izaña Observatory (22% overestimation) and at Agia Marina Xyliatos site (4% overestimation). Further model developments, including the implementation of newer surface mineralogical datasets, e.g., from the NASA-EMIT satellite mission, can be implemented in the model to improve its accuracy.
With the establishment of the first wind farm on the island, Cyprus has made progress to satisfy the European Union’s 2020 renewable energy targets. Operational since September 2010, the 174 M€ ...Orites wind farm is currently the largest wind project in the Mediterranean region. In this article, the main characteristics of the project with regard to Cyprus’s national action plan for the promotion of renewable energy sources are presented. The socio-economic impacts of the project and its feasibility in the context of an isolated energy system are also examined. The results of a public survey to identify the attitudes of surrounding households and neighbouring cities towards the wind farm are presented. The assessment was based on face-to-face interviews conducted with 50 households from the surrounding communities and 100 interviewees from neighbouring cities. According to the survey, the public opinion on the wind farm was generally positive, and the majority of the respondents considered the wind farm to be acceptable as of no considerable environmental impact.
► We compare the measured and the calculated energy performance of buildings. ► The energy consumption of ten dwellings is measured for one year. ► Their energy needs are calculated by applying a ...CEN/TR 15615:2008 based methodology with the use of the SBEM software. ► The study is performed in a summer dominant environment. ► A large deviation between calculation and measurement is revealed, especially for cooling loads.
The objective of this study is to present a comparison between the measured and the calculated energy performance of dwellings. For this purpose, the energy consumption of ten dwellings is measured for one year. The added value of this work is that it is performed in a summer dominant environment. The energy needs of the same dwellings are also calculated by means of the methodology based on European Standards described in the CEN/TR 15615:2008 technical report. According to the findings of this study, a large gap exists between the calculated and the measured energy consumption of the examined dwellings. In order to evaluate the reasons for this deviation, a detailed analysis of the heating and cooling loads of the dwellings is performed. The intermittent heating of the building is found to be simulated accurately by the employed methodology, whereas the comparison between the calculated and the measured cooling loads reveals a large deviation of about 150%. Based on the findings of this study, a factor of 0.6 should be adopted in the case of cooling schedule, compared to the heating operation of the building.
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