Protein oxidation sits at the intersection of multiple signalling pathways, yet the magnitude and extent of crosstalk between oxidation and other post-translational modifications remains unclear. ...Here, we delineate global changes in adipocyte signalling networks following acute oxidative stress and reveal considerable crosstalk between cysteine oxidation and phosphorylation-based signalling. Oxidation of key regulatory kinases, including Akt, mTOR and AMPK influences the fidelity rather than their absolute activation state, highlighting an unappreciated interplay between these modifications. Mechanistic analysis of the redox regulation of Akt identified two cysteine residues in the pleckstrin homology domain (C60 and C77) to be reversibly oxidized. Oxidation at these sites affected Akt recruitment to the plasma membrane by stabilizing the PIP
binding pocket. Our data provide insights into the interplay between oxidative stress-derived redox signalling and protein phosphorylation networks and serve as a resource for understanding the contribution of cellular oxidation to a range of diseases.
The integrity of the plasma membrane is critical to cell function and survival. Cells have developed multiple mechanisms to repair damaged plasma membranes. A key process during plasma membrane ...repair is to limit the size of the damage, which is facilitated by the presence of tetraspanin-enriched rings surrounding damage sites. Here, we identify phosphatidylserine-enriched rings surrounding damaged sites of the plasma membrane, resembling tetraspanin-enriched rings. Importantly, the formation of both the phosphatidylserine- and tetraspanin-enriched rings requires phosphatidylserine and its transfer proteins ORP5 and ORP9. Interestingly, ORP9, but not ORP5, is recruited to the damage sites, suggesting cells acquire phosphatidylserine from multiple sources upon plasma membrane damage. We further demonstrate that ORP9 contributes to efficient plasma membrane repair. Our results thus unveil a role for phosphatidylserine and its transfer proteins in facilitating the formation of tetraspanin-enriched macrodomains and plasma membrane repair.
The failure of metabolic tissues to appropriately respond to insulin ("insulin resistance") is an early marker in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. Protein phosphorylation is central to the ...adipocyte insulin response, but how adipocyte signaling networks are dysregulated upon insulin resistance is unknown. Here we employ phosphoproteomics to delineate insulin signal transduction in adipocyte cells and adipose tissue. Across a range of insults causing insulin resistance, we observe a marked rewiring of the insulin signaling network. This includes both attenuated insulin-responsive phosphorylation, and the emergence of phosphorylation uniquely insulin-regulated in insulin resistance. Identifying dysregulated phosphosites common to multiple insults reveals subnetworks containing non-canonical regulators of insulin action, such as MARK2/3, and causal drivers of insulin resistance. The presence of several bona fide GSK3 substrates among these phosphosites led us to establish a pipeline for identifying context-specific kinase substrates, revealing widespread dysregulation of GSK3 signaling. Pharmacological inhibition of GSK3 partially reverses insulin resistance in cells and tissue explants. These data highlight that insulin resistance is a multi-nodal signaling defect that includes dysregulated MARK2/3 and GSK3 activity.
The phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt network is tightly controlled by feedback mechanisms that regulate signal flow and ensure signal fidelity. A rapid overshoot in insulin-stimulated recruitment ...of Akt to the plasma membrane has previously been reported, which is indicative of negative feedback operating on acute timescales. Here, we show that Akt itself engages this negative feedback by phosphorylating insulin receptor substrate (IRS) 1 and 2 on a number of residues. Phosphorylation results in the depletion of plasma membrane-localised IRS1/2, reducing the pool available for interaction with the insulin receptor. Together these events limit plasma membrane-associated PI3K and phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PIP3) synthesis. We identified two Akt-dependent phosphorylation sites in IRS2 at S306 (S303 in mouse) and S577 (S573 in mouse) that are key drivers of this negative feedback. These findings establish a novel mechanism by which the kinase Akt acutely controls PIP3 abundance, through post-translational modification of the IRS scaffold.
Exercise stimulates cellular and physiological adaptations that are associated with widespread health benefits. To uncover conserved protein phosphorylation events underlying this adaptive response, ...we performed mass spectrometry‐based phosphoproteomic analyses of skeletal muscle from two widely used rodent models: treadmill running in mice and in situ muscle contraction in rats. We overlaid these phosphoproteomic signatures with cycling in humans to identify common cross‐species phosphosite responses, as well as unique model‐specific regulation. We identified > 22,000 phosphosites, revealing orthologous protein phosphorylation and overlapping signaling pathways regulated by exercise. This included two conserved phosphosites on stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1), which we validate as AMPK substrates. Furthermore, we demonstrate that AMPK‐mediated phosphorylation of STIM1 negatively regulates store‐operated calcium entry, and this is beneficial for exercise in Drosophila. This integrated cross‐species resource of exercise‐regulated signaling in human, mouse, and rat skeletal muscle has uncovered conserved networks and unraveled crosstalk between AMPK and intracellular calcium flux.
Synopsis
Exercise stimulates cellular and physiological adaptations associated with widespread health benefits, however the underlying signalling events remain unclear. Here, integrated cross‐species analysis of exercise‐regulated protein phosphorylation in the skeletal muscle uncovers conserved signaling networks including crosstalk between AMPK and intracellular calcium flux.
Phospoproteomic analysis of human, rat and mouse skeletal muscle identifies > 5,000 exercise‐regulated phosphosites.
Cross‐species integration reveals conserved pathways and a compendium of potential exercise regulators.
AMPK phosphorylates stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) and inhibits skeletal muscle store‐operated calcium entry.
Inhibition of STIM1 improves exercise tolerance and delays fatigue in Drosophila.
Global analysis of contraction‐regulated protein phosphorylation in skeletal muscle uncovers signalling nodes conserved between mouse, rat and human.
The Ser/Thr protein kinase Akt regulates essential biological processes such as cell survival, growth, and metabolism. Upon growth factor stimulation, Akt is phosphorylated at Ser474; however, how ...this phosphorylation contributes to Akt activation remains controversial. Previous studies, which induced loss of Ser474 phosphorylation by ablating its upstream kinase mTORC2, have implicated Ser474 phosphorylation as a driver of Akt substrate specificity. Here we directly studied the role of Akt2 Ser474 phosphorylation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes by preventing Ser474 phosphorylation without perturbing mTORC2 activity. This was achieved by utilizing a chemical genetics approach, where ectopically expressed S474A Akt2 was engineered with a W80A mutation to confer resistance to the Akt inhibitor MK2206, and thus allow its activation independent of endogenous Akt. We found that insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of four bona fide Akt substrates (TSC2, PRAS40, FOXO1/3a, and AS160) was reduced by ∼50% in the absence of Ser474 phosphorylation. Accordingly, insulin-stimulated mTORC1 activation, protein synthesis, FOXO nuclear exclusion, GLUT4 translocation, and glucose uptake were attenuated upon loss of Ser474 phosphorylation. We propose a model where Ser474 phosphorylation is required for maximal Akt2 kinase activity in adipocytes.
Trafficking regulator of GLUT4-1, TRARG1, positively regulates insulin-stimulated GLUT4 trafficking and insulin sensitivity. However, the mechanism(s) by which this occurs remain(s) unclear. Using ...biochemical and mass spectrometry analyses we found that TRARG1 is dephosphorylated in response to insulin in a PI3K/Akt-dependent manner and is a novel substrate for GSK3. Priming phosphorylation of murine TRARG1 at serine 84 allows for GSK3-directed phosphorylation at serines 72, 76 and 80. A similar pattern of phosphorylation was observed in human TRARG1, suggesting that our findings are translatable to human TRARG1. Pharmacological inhibition of GSK3 increased cell surface GLUT4 in cells stimulated with a submaximal insulin dose, and this was impaired following Trarg1 knockdown, suggesting that TRARG1 acts as a GSK3-mediated regulator in GLUT4 trafficking. These data place TRARG1 within the insulin signaling network and provide insights into how GSK3 regulates GLUT4 trafficking in adipocytes.
The in vitro oxygen microenvironment profoundly affects the capacity of cell cultures to model physiological and pathophysiological states. Cell culture is often considered to be hyperoxic, but ...pericellular oxygen levels, which are affected by oxygen diffusivity and consumption, are rarely reported. Here, we provide evidence that several cell types in culture actually experience local hypoxia, with important implications for cell metabolism and function. We focused initially on adipocytes, as adipose tissue hypoxia is frequently observed in obesity and precedes diminished adipocyte function. Under standard conditions, cultured adipocytes are highly glycolytic and exhibit a transcriptional profile indicative of physiological hypoxia. Increasing pericellular oxygen diverted glucose flux toward mitochondria, lowered HIF1α activity, and resulted in widespread transcriptional rewiring. Functionally, adipocytes increased adipokine secretion and sensitivity to insulin and lipolytic stimuli, recapitulating a healthier adipocyte model. The functional benefits of increasing pericellular oxygen were also observed in macrophages, hPSC-derived hepatocytes and cardiac organoids. Our findings demonstrate that oxygen is limiting in many terminally-differentiated cell types, and that considering pericellular oxygen improves the quality, reproducibility and translatability of culture models.
Synopsis
Cell culture is considered a microenvironment with high oxygen. Here, terminally-differentiated cells are shown to be deprived of pericellular oxygen in standard culture systems. mandating tight control of oxygen provision and consumption conditions to ensure experimental reproducibility and translatability to physiology.
Cells of various types cultured in standard medium volumes are hypoxic due to oxygen consumption exceeding diffusion rates.
Increasing oxygen supply to cultured cells enhances glucose oxidation and anabolic reactions, and causes widespread transcriptional changes.
Increased oxygen supply improves the differentiation and function of differentiated cellular models such as adipocytes, macrophages, hPSC-derived hepatocytes and cardiac organoids.
Transcriptional responses to limited oxygen in cultured cells match those driven by hypoxia
in vivo
.
Standard cell culture medium volumes dictate a hypoxic pericellular
in vitro
microenvironment due to oxygen consumption exceeding diffusion rates.
Akt is a key node in a range of signal transduction cascades and play a critical role in diseases such as cancer and diabetes. Fluorescently-tagged Akt reporters have been used to discern Akt ...localisation, yet it has not been clear how well these tools recapitulate the behaviour of endogenous Akt proteins. Here, we observed that fusion of eGFP to Akt2 impaired both its insulin-stimulated plasma membrane recruitment and its phosphorylation. Endogenous-like responses were restored by replacing eGFP with TagRFP-T. The improved response magnitude and sensitivity afforded by TagRFP-T-Akt2 over eGFP-Akt2 enabled monitoring of signalling outcomes in single cells at physiological doses of insulin with subcellular resolution and revealed two previously unreported features of Akt biology. In 3T3-L1 adipocytes, stimulation with insulin resulted in recruitment of Akt2 to the plasma membrane in a polarised fashion. Additionally, we observed oscillations in plasma membrane localised Akt2 in the presence of insulin with a consistent periodicity of 2 min. Our studies highlight the importance of fluorophore choice when generating reporter constructs and shed light on new Akt signalling responses that may encode complex signalling information.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.
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