Context. Measuring star formation across the Universe is key to constraining models of galaxy formation and evolution. Yet, determining the star formation rate (SFR) of galaxies remains a challenge. ...Aims. In this paper we investigate in isolation the impact of a variable star formation history on the measurement of the SFR. Methods. We combine 23 state-of-the-art hydrodynamical simulations of 1 <z< 2 galaxies on the main sequence with the cigale spectral energy distribution modelling code. This allows us to generate synthetic spectra every 1 Myr for each simulation, taking the stellar populations and the nebular emission into account. Using these spectra, we estimate the SFR from classical estimators, which we compare with the true SFR we know from the simulations. Results. We find that except for the Lyman continuum, classical SFR estimators calibrated over 100 Myr overestimate the SFR from ~25% in the far-ultraviolet to ~65% in the U band. Such biases are due to 1) the contribution of stars living longer than 100 Myr, and 2) variations of the SFR on timescales longer than a few tens of Myr. Rapid variations of the SFR increase the uncertainty on the determination of the instantaneous SFR, but have no long term effect. Conclusions. The discrepancies between the true and estimated SFR may explain at least part of the tension between the integral of the SFR density and the stellar mass density at a given redshift. To reduce possible biases, we suggest using SFR estimators calibrated over 1 Gyr rather than the usually adopted 100 Myr timescales.
Abstract
We investigate the fraction of close pairs and morphologically identified mergers on and above the star-forming main sequence (MS) at 0.2 ≤ z ≤2.0. The novelty of our work lies in the use of ...a non-parametric morphological classification performed on resolved stellar mass maps, reducing the contamination by non-interacting, high-redshift clumpy galaxies. We find that the merger fraction rapidly rises to ≥70 per cent above the MS, implying that – already at z ≳ 1 – starburst (SB) events (ΔMS ≥ 0.6) are almost always associated with a major merger (1:1 to 1:6 mass ratio). The majority of interacting galaxies in the SB region are morphologically disturbed, late-stage mergers. Pair fractions show little dependence on MS offset and pairs are more prevalent than late-stage mergers only in the lower half of the MS. In our sample, major mergers on the MS occur with a roughly equal frequency of ∼5–10 per cent at all masses ≳ 1010 M⊙. The MS major merger fraction roughly doubles between z = 0.2 and 2, with morphological mergers driving the overall increase at z ≳ 1. The differential redshift evolution of interacting pairs and morphologically classified mergers on the MS can be reconciled by evolving observability time-scales for both pairs and morphological disturbances. The observed variation of the late-stage merger fraction with ΔMS follows the perturbative 2-Star Formation Mode model, where any MS galaxy can experience a continuum of different star formation rate enhancements. This points to an SB–merger connection not only for extreme events, but also more moderate bursts which merely scatter galaxies upward within the MS, rather than fully elevating them above it.
In Lambda-CDM models, galaxies are thought to grow both through continuous cold gas accretion coming from the cosmic web and episodic merger events. The relative importance of these different ...mechanisms at different cosmic epochs is nevertheless not yet understood well. We aim to address questions related to galaxy mass assembly through major and minor wet merging processes in the redshift range 1 < zeta < 2, an epoch that corresponds to the peak of cosmic star formation history. A significant fraction of Milky Way-like galaxies are thought to have undergone an unstable clumpy phase at this early stage. We focus on the behavior of the young clumpy disks when galaxies are undergoing gas-rich galaxy mergers. The star formation history of isolated disks shows a stochastic star formation rate, which proceeds from the complex behavior of the giant clumps. The mass-size relation and its rate of evolution in the redshift range 1 < zeta < 2 matches observations, suggesting that the inside-out growth mechanisms of the stellar disk do not necessarily require cold accretion.
Galaxy mergers are believed to trigger strong starbursts. This is well assessed by observations in the local Universe. However, the efficiency of this mechanism has poorly been tested so far for ...high-redshift, actively star-forming, galaxies. We present a suite of pc-resolution hydrodynamical numerical simulations to compare the star formation process along a merging sequence of high- and low-redshift galaxies, by varying the gas mass fraction between the two models. We show that, for the same orbit, high-redshift gas-rich mergers are less efficient than low-redshift ones at producing starbursts; the star formation rate excess induced by the merger and its duration are both around 10 times lower than in the low gas fraction case. The mechanisms that account for the star formation triggering at low redshift -- the increased compressive turbulence, gas fragmentation, and central gas inflows -- are only mildly, if not at all, enhanced for high gas fraction galaxy encounters. Furthermore, we show that the strong stellar feedback from the initially high star formation rate in high-redshift galaxies does not prevent an increase of the star formation during the merger. Our results are consistent with the observed increase of the number of major mergers with increasing redshift being faster than the respective increase in the number of starburst galaxies.
When cosmic star formation history reaches a peak (at about redshift z ≈ 2), galaxies vigorously fed by cosmic reservoirs are dominated by gas and contain massive star-forming clumps, which are ...thought to form by violent gravitational instabilities in highly turbulent gas-rich disks. However, a clump formation event has not yet been observed, and it is debated whether clumps can survive energetic feedback from young stars, and afterwards migrate inwards to form galaxy bulges. Here we report the spatially resolved spectroscopy of a bright off-nuclear emission line region in a galaxy at z = 1.987. Although this region dominates star formation in the galaxy disk, its stellar continuum remains undetected in deep imaging, revealing an extremely young (less than ten million years old) massive clump, forming through the gravitational collapse of more than one billion solar masses of gas. Gas consumption in this young clump is more than tenfold faster than in the host galaxy, displaying high star-formation efficiency during this phase, in agreement with our hydrodynamic simulations. The frequency of older clumps with similar masses, coupled with our initial estimate of their formation rate (about 2.5 per billion years), supports long lifetimes (about 500 million years), favouring models in which clumps survive feedback and grow the bulges of present-day galaxies.
AbstractWe use hydrodynamical simulations of a Cartwheel-like ring galaxy, modelled as a nearly head-on collision of a small companion with a larger disc galaxy, to probe the evolution of the gaseous ...structures and flows, and to explore the physical conditions setting the star formation activity. Star formation is first quenched by tides as the companion approaches, before being enhanced shortly after the collision. The ring ploughs the disc material as it radially extends, and almost simultaneously depletes its stellar and gaseous reservoir into the central region, through the spokes, and finally dissolve 200 Myr after the collision. Most of star formation first occurs in the ring before this activity is transferred to the spokes and then the nucleus. We thus propose that the location of star formation traces the dynamical stage of ring galaxies, and could help constrain their star formation histories. The ring hosts tidal compression associated with strong turbulence. This compression yields an azimuthal asymmetry, with maxima reached in the side furthest away from the nucleus, which matches the star formation activity distribution in our models and in observed ring systems. The interaction triggers the formation of star clusters significantly more massive than before the collision, but less numerous than in more classical galaxy interactions. The peculiar geometry of Cartwheel-like objects thus yields a star (cluster) formation activity comparable to other interacting objects, but with notable second order differences in the nature of turbulence, the enhancement of the star formation rate, and the number of massive clusters formed.
Context. Processes driving mass assembly are expected to evolve on different timescales along cosmic time. A transition might happen around z similar to 1 as the cosmic star formation rate starts its ...decrease. Aims. We aim to identify the dynamical nature of galaxies in a representative sample to be able to infer and compare the mass assembly mechanisms across cosmic time. Methods. We present an analysis of the kinematics properties of 50 galaxies with redshifts 0.9 \textless z \textless 1.6 from the MASSIV sample observed with SINFONI/VLT with a mass range from 4.5 x 10(9) M-circle dot to 1.7 x 10(11) M-circle dot and a star formation rate from 6 M-circle dot yr(-1) to 300 M-circle dot yr(-1). This is the largest sample with 2D kinematics in this redshift range. We provide a classification based on kinematics as well as on close galaxy environment. Results. We find that a significant fraction of galaxies in our sample (29%) experience merging or have close companions that may be gravitationally linked. This places a lower limit on the fraction of interacting galaxies because ongoing mergers are probably also present but harder to identify. We find that at least 44% of the galaxies in our sample display ordered rotation, whereas at least 35% are non-rotating objects. All rotators except one are compatible with rotation-dominated (V-max/sigma \textgreater 1) systems. Non-rotating objects are mainly small objects (R-e \textless 4 kpc). They show an anti-correlation of their velocity dispersion and their effective radius. These low-mass objects (log M-star \textless 10.5) may be ongoing mergers in a transient state, galaxies with only one unresolved star-forming region, galaxies with an unstable gaseous phase or, less probably, spheroids. Combining our sample with other 3D-spectroscopy samples, we find that the local velocity dispersion of the ionized gas component decreases continuously from z similar to 3 to z = 0. The proportion of disks also seems to be increasing in star-forming galaxies when the redshift decreases. The number of interacting galaxies seems to be at a maximum at z similar to 1.2. Conclusions. These results draw a picture in which cold gas accretion may still be efficient at z similar to 1.2 but in which mergers may play a much more significant role at z similar to 1.2 than at higher redshift. From a dynamical point of view, the redshift range 1 \textless z \textless 2 therefore appears as a transition period in the galaxy mass assembly process(star star star star).
ABSTRACT At z 1, the distinction between merging and "normal" star-forming galaxies based on single band morphology is often hampered by the presence of large clumps which result in a disturbed, ...merger-like appearance even in rotationally supported disks. In this paper we discuss how a classification based on canonical, non-parametric structural indices measured on resolved stellar mass maps, rather than on single-band images, reduces the misclassification of clumpy but not merging galaxies. We calibrate the mass-based selection of mergers using the MIRAGE hydrodynamical numerical simulations of isolated and merging galaxies which span a stellar mass range of 109.8-1010.6 M and merger ratios between 1:1-1:6.3. These simulations are processed to reproduce the typical depth and spatial resolution of observed Hubble Ultra Deep Field (HUDF) data. We test our approach on a sample of real galaxies with kinematic classification into disks or mergers and on ∼100 galaxies in the HUDF field with photometric/spectroscopic redshift between 1.5 ≤ z ≤ 3 and M > 109.4 M . We find that a combination of the asymmetry AMASS and M20, MASS indices measured on the stellar mass maps can efficiently identify real (major) mergers with 20% contamination from clumpy disks in the merger sample. This mass-based classification cannot be reproduced in star-forming galaxies by H-band measurements alone, which instead result in a contamination from clumpy galaxies which can be as high as 50%. Moreover, we find that the mass-based classification always results in a lower contamination from clumpy galaxies than an H-band classification, regardless of the depth of the imaging used (e.g., CANDELS versus HUDF).
Abstract Until now, determining the sex of a recently deceased individual using the measurement of the bicondylar breadth of the femur (also known as condylar width, epicondylar breadth and distal ...epiphyseal breadth) raised some concerns as to accuracy because no sample of contemporary French subjects was available. In this study, a sample of 88 female and male femurs taken from recently deceased elderly French people was studied. The bones were collected from subjects who had donated their bodies to the Medical School of Nice. The mean value of the male bicondylar breadth was found to be greater than that of females (84.3 mm versus 74.8 mm), confirming the sexual dimorphism of this parameter. Furthermore, the results showed a 95.4% accuracy rate for sexing individuals. To date, in the French population, as in some other samples, epicondylar breadth is the single most accurate measurement of sex determination, ahead even of head diameter. A discriminant function is presented to allow sex determination from remains of the distal femur. With regard to the data available in the literature, sexual dimorphism is probably the result of both genetic and environmental factors. The comparison of our results with those of other populations shows that there are inter-population variations of the bicondylar breadth, and also intra-population variations that account for the differences in the accuracy rate of this variable for the purposes of sex determination. These findings underscore the need to re-evaluate bone measurements within various contemporary populations.
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