The cytokines IL-1α and IL-1β exert powerful pro-inflammatory actions throughout the body, mediated primarily by the intracellular signaling capacity of the interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R1). Although ...Il1r1 knockout mice have been informative with respect to a requirement for IL-1R1 signaling in inflammatory events, the constitutive nature of gene elimination has limited their utility in the assessment of temporal and spatial patterns of cytokine action. To pursue such questions, we have generated C57Bl/6J mice containing a floxed Il1r1 gene (Il1r1loxP/loxP), with loxP sites positioned to flank exons 3 and 4 and thereby the ability to spatially and temporally eliminate Il1r1 expression and signaling. We found that Il1r1loxP/loxP mice breed normally and exhibit no gross physical or behavioral phenotypes. Moreover, Il1r1loxP/loxP mice exhibit normal IL-1R1 receptor expression in brain and spleen, as well as normal IL-1R1-dependent increases in serum IL-6 following IL-1α injections. Breeding of Il1r1loxP/loxP mice to animals expressing a cytomegalovirus (CMV)-driven Cre recombinase afforded efficient excision at the Il1r1 locus. The Il1r1loxP/loxP line should be a valuable tool for the assessment of contributions made by IL-1R1 signaling in diverse cell types across development.
Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) has long been recognized as a key contributor to the regulation of mood and anxiety and is strongly associated with the etiology of major depressive disorder ...(MDD). Although more known for its roles within the central nervous system (CNS), 5-HT is recognized to modulate several key aspects of immune system function that may contribute to the development of MDD. Copious amounts of research have outlined a connection between alterations in immune system function, inflammation status, and MDD. Supporting this connection, peripheral immune activation results in changes in the function and/or expression of many components of 5-HT signaling that are associated with depressive-like phenotypes. How 5-HT is utilized by the immune system to effect CNS function and ultimately behaviors related to depression is still not well understood. This Review summarizes the evidence that immune system alterations related to depression affect CNS 5-HT signaling that can alter MDD-relevant behaviors and that 5-HT regulates immune system signaling within the CNS and periphery. We suggest that targeting the interrelationships between immune and 5-HT signaling may provide more effective treatments for subsets of those suffering from inflammation-associated MDD.
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a common neurobehavioral disorder with limited treatment options. Activation of p38 MAPK signaling networks has been identified in ASD, and p38 MAPK signaling ...elevates serotonin (5-HT) transporter (SERT) activity, effects mimicked by multiple, hyperfunctional SERT coding variants identified in ASD subjects. Mice expressing the most common of these variants (SERT Ala56) exhibit hyperserotonemia, a biomarker observed in ASD subjects, as well as p38 MAPK-dependent SERT hyperphosphorylation, elevated hippocampal 5-HT clearance, hypersensitivity of CNS 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A/2C receptors, and behavioral and gastrointestinal perturbations reminiscent of ASD. As the α-isoform of p38 MAPK drives SERT activation, we tested the hypothesis that CNS-penetrant, α-isoform–specific p38 MAPK inhibitors might normalize SERT Ala56 phenotypes. Strikingly, 1-week treatment of adult SERT Ala56 mice with MW150, a selective p38α MAPK inhibitor, normalized hippocampal 5-HT clearance, CNS 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A/2C receptor sensitivities, social interactions, and colonic motility. Conditional elimination of p38α MAPK in 5-HT neurons of SERT Ala56 mice restored 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A/2C receptor sensitivities as well as social interactions, mirroring effects of MW150. Our findings support ongoing p38α MAPK activity as an important determinant of the physiological and behavioral perturbations of SERT Ala56 mice and, more broadly, supports consideration of p38α MAPK inhibition as a potential treatment for core and comorbid phenotypes present in ASD subjects.
Altered serotonin (5-HT) signaling is associated with multiple brain disorders, including major depressive disorder (MDD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The ...presynaptic, high-affinity 5-HT transporter (SERT) tightly regulates 5-HT clearance after release from serotonergic neurons in the brain and enteric nervous systems, among other sites. Accumulating evidence suggests that SERT is dynamically regulated in distinct activity states as a result of environmental and intracellular stimuli, with regulation perturbed by disease-associated coding variants. Our lab identified a rare, hypermorphic SERT coding substitution, Gly56Ala, in subjects with ASD, finding that the Ala56 variant stabilizes a high-affinity outward-facing conformation, leading to elevated 5-HT uptake, termed SERT* state, in vitro and in vivo. Hyperactive SERT Ala56 appears to preclude further activity enhancements by p38 MAPK and can be normalized by pharmacological p38⍺ MAPK inhibition, consistent with SERT Ala56 mimicking, constitutively, a high-activity conformation entered into transiently by p38⍺ MAPK activation. As SERT has been found to interact with a number of regulatory proteins, we hypothesize that changes in SERT-interacting proteins (SIPs) support the shift of SERT into the SERT* state that can best be captured comparing SERT Ala56 protein complexes with those of wildtype SERT and by defining specific interactions through comparisons to protein complexes recovered in SERT-/- mice. Using quantitative proteomics-based approaches, we identify a number of proteins previously shown to interact with SERT, as well as a number of SIPs, that demonstrate both SERT specificity and sensitivity to the Gly56Ala substitution. Network analysis of our findings uncovers a number of ASD-associated proteins, consistent with long-standing evidence of serotonergic contributions to ASD. Further investigation of these SIPs, and the pathways they engage, may afford a greater understanding of ASD as well as other brain and peripheral disorders associated with perturbed 5-HT signaling.
The serotonin (5-HT) transporter (SERT) is a key regulator of 5-HT signaling and is a major target for antidepressants and psychostimulants. Human SERT coding variants have been identified in ...subjects with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) that impact transporter phosphorylation, cell surface trafficking and/or conformational dynamics. Prior to an initial description of a novel mouse line expressing the non-phosphorylatable SERT substitution Thr276Ala, we review efforts made to elucidate the structure and conformational dynamics of SERT with a focus on research implicating phosphorylation at Thr276 as a determinant of SERT conformational dynamics. Using the high-resolution structure of human SERT in inward- and outward-open conformations, we explore the conformation dependence of SERT Thr276 exposure, with results suggesting that phosphorylation is likely restricted to an inward-open conformation, consistent with prior biochemical studies. Assessment of genotypes from SERT/Ala276 heterozygous matings revealed a deviation from Mendelian expectations, with reduced numbers of Ala276 offspring, though no genotype differences were seen in growth or physical appearance. Similarly, no genotype differences were evident in midbrain or hippocampal 5-HT levels, midbrain and hippocampal SERT mRNA or midbrain protein levels, nor in midbrain synaptosomal 5-HT uptake kinetics. Behaviorally, SERT Ala276 homozygotes appeared normal in measures of anxiety and antidepressant-sensitive stress coping behavior. However, these mice displayed sex-dependent alterations in repetitive and social interactions, consistent with circuit-dependent requirements for Thr276 phosphorylation underlying these behaviors. Our findings indicate the utility of SERT Ala276 mice in evaluation of developmental, functional and behavioral consequences of regulatory SERT phosphorylation
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The dopamine transporter (DAT) is a transmembrane protein that terminates dopamine signaling in the brain by driving rapid dopamine reuptake into presynaptic nerve terminals. Several lines of ...evidence indicate that DAT dysfunction is linked to neuropsychiatric disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), bipolar disorder (BPD), and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Indeed, individuals with these disorders have been found to express the rare, functional DAT coding variant Val559, which confers anomalous dopamine efflux (ADE) in vitro and in vivo. To elucidate the impact of the DAT Val559 variant on membrane diffusion dynamics, we implemented our antagonist-conjugated quantum dot (QD) labeling approach to monitor the lateral mobility of single particle-labeled transporters in transfected HEK-293 and SK-N-MC cells. Our results demonstrate significantly higher diffusion coefficients of DAT Val559 compared to those of DAT Ala559, effects likely determined by elevated N-terminal transporter phosphorylation. We also provide pharmacological evidence that PKCβ-mediated signaling supports enhanced DAT Val559 membrane diffusion rates. Additionally, our results are complimented with diffusion rates of phosphomimicked and phosphorylation-occluded DAT variants. Furthermore, we show DAT Val559 has a lower propensity for membrane clustering, which may be caused by a mutation-derived shift out of membrane microdomains leading to faster lateral membrane diffusion rates. These findings further demonstrate a functional impact of DAT Val559 and suggest that changes in transporter localization and lateral mobility may sustain ADE and contribute to alterations in dopamine signaling underlying multiple neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Adrenal chromaffin cells comprise the neuroendocrine arm of the sympathetic nervous system and secrete catecholamines to coordinate the appropriate stress response. Deletion of the ...serotonin (5-HT) transporter (SERT) gene in mice (SERT−/− mice) or pharmacological block of SERT function in rodents and humans augments this sympathoadrenal stress response (epinephrine secretion). The prevailing assumption is that loss of CNS SERT alters central drive to the peripheral sympathetic nervous system. Adrenal chromaffin cells also prominently express SERT where it might coordinate accumulation of 5-HT for reuse in the autocrine control of stress-evoked catecholamine secretion. To help test this hypothesis, we have generated a novel mouse model with selective excision of SERT in the peripheral sympathetic nervous system (SERTΔTH), generated by crossing floxed SERT mice with tyrosine hydroxylase Cre driver mice. SERT expression, assessed by western blot, was abolished in the adrenal gland but not perturbed in the CNS of SERTΔTH mice. SERT-mediated 3H 5-HT uptake was unaltered in midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord synaptosomes, confirming transporter function was intact in the CNS. Endogenous midbrain and whole blood 5-HT homeostasis was unperturbed in SERTΔTH mice, contrasting with the depleted 5-HT content in SERT−/− mice. Selective SERT excision reduced adrenal gland 5-HT content by ≈ 50% in SERTΔTH mice but had no effect on adrenal catecholamine content. This novel model confirms that SERT expressed in adrenal chromaffin cells is essential for maintaining wild-type levels of 5-HT and provides a powerful tool to help dissect the role of SERT in the sympathetic stress response.
The antidepressant-sensitive serotonin (5-HT) transporter (SERT) dictates rapid, high-affinity clearance of the neurotransmitter in both the brain and periphery. In a study of families with multiple ...individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), we previously identified several, rare, missense coding variants that impart elevated 5-HT transport activity, relative to wild-type SERT, upon heterologous expression as well as in ASD subject lymphoblasts. The most common of these variants, SERT Ala56, located in the transporter’s cytosolic N-terminus, has been found to confer in transgenic mice hyperserotonemia, an ASD-associated biochemical trait, an elevated brain 5-HT clearance rate, and ASD-aligned behavioral changes. Hyperfunction of SERT Ala56 has been ascribed to a change in 5-HT K M, though the physical basis of this change has yet to be elucidated. Through assessments of fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between cytosolic N- and C-termini, sensitivity to methanethiosulfonates, and capacity for N-terminal tryptic digestion, we obtain evidence for mutation-induced conformational changes that support an open-outward 5-HT binding conformation in vitro and in vivo. Aspects of these findings were also evident with another naturally occurring C-terminal SERT coding variant identified in our ASD study, Asn605. We conclude that biased conformations of surface resident transporters that can impact transporter function and regulation are an unappreciated consequence of heritable and disease-associated SERT coding variation.
Dopamine is broadly implicated in reinforcement learning, but how patterns of dopamine activity are generated is poorly resolved. Here, we demonstrate that two ion channels, Kv4.3 and BKCa1.1, ...regulate the pattern of dopamine neuron firing and dopamine release on different time scales to influence separate phases of reinforced behavior in mice. Inactivation of Kv4.3 in VTA dopamine neurons increases ex vivo pacemaker activity and excitability that is associated with increased in vivo firing rate and ramping dynamics before lever press in a learned instrumental paradigm. Loss of Kv4.3 enhances performance of the learned response and facilitates extinction. In contrast, loss of BKCa1.1 increases burst firing and phasic dopamine release that enhances learning of an instrumental response and enhances extinction burst lever pressing in early extinction that is associated with a greater change in activity between reinforced and unreinforced actions. These data demonstrate that disruption of intrinsic regulators of neuronal activity differentially affects dopamine dynamics during reinforcement and extinction learning.
The neurotransmitter serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) modulates many key brain functions including those subserving sensation, emotion, reward, and cognition. Efficient clearance of 5-HT after ...release is achieved by the antidepressant-sensitive 5-HT transporter (SERT, SLC6A4). To identify novel SERT regulators, we pursued a proteomic analysis of mouse midbrain SERT complexes, evaluating findings in the context of prior studies that established a SERT-linked transcriptome. Remarkably, both efforts converged on a relationship of SERT with the synaptic adhesion protein neuroligin 2 (NLGN2), a post-synaptic partner for presynaptic neurexins, and a protein well-known to organize inhibitory GABAergic synapses. Western blots of midbrain reciprocal immunoprecipitations confirmed SERT/NLGN2 associations, and also extended to other NLGN2 associated proteins e.g., α-neurexin (NRXN), gephyrin. Midbrain SERT/NLGN2 interactions were found to be Ca(2+)-independent, supporting cis vs. trans-synaptic interactions, and were absent in hippocampal preparations, consistent with interactions arising in somatodendritic compartments. Dual color in situ hybridization confirmed co-expression of Tph2 and Nlgn2 mRNA in the dorsal raphe, with immunocytochemical studies confirming SERT:NLGN2 co-localization in raphe cell bodies but not axons. Consistent with correlative mRNA expression studies, loss of NLGN2 expression in Nlgn2 null mice produced significant reductions in midbrain and hippocampal SERT expression and function. Additionally, dorsal raphe 5-HT neurons from Nlgn2 null mice exhibit reduced excitability, a loss of GABAA receptor-mediated IPSCs, and increased 5-HT1A autoreceptor sensitivity. Finally, Nlgn2 null mice display significant changes in behaviors known to be responsive to SERT and/or 5-HT receptor manipulations. We discuss our findings in relation to the possible coordination of intrinsic and extrinsic regulation afforded by somatodendritic SERT:NLGN2 complexes.
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