Although the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS), published in 1995, has demonstrated validity and reliability in multiple studies, the scale has received some criticisms leading to revisions herein ...described. The objective of the present studies was to examine the construct validity and reliability of a revised scale sport motivation scale (SMS-II).
Two studies were conducted using distinct samples of athletes. Study 1 examined adult athletes participating in a variety of sports and Study 2 examined youth basketball players and swimmers.
In Study 1 the SMS-II was introduced and featured various item content changes, a reduced number of items per subscale, the addition of an integrated regulation subscale, and the introduction of a single intrinsic motivation subscale to replace the three intrinsic motivation subscales in the SMS. Relations of SMS-II subscales with each other and with expected outcomes supported the new scale's validity. In Study 2, the structure of the SMS-II and its relations with outcomes were further examined.
Results of factor analyses, tests for internal consistency, and correlations among the different subscales and between the subscales and several outcomes of interest, supported the validity of the SMS-II.
Discussion focuses on the need for measurement improvement, and potential future directions for SMS-II research.
► A revised version of the sport motivation scale (SMS-II) is proposed. ► A shorter scale with 1 measure of intrinsic motivation and an integrated subscale. ► Validated with two distinct samples: adult athletes and youth athletes. ► Factor analyses, reliabilities, and correlations support scale structure. ► Results support the creation of the SMS-II.
Abstract
Background
LGBTQ+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, etc.) individuals experience challenges such as discrimination and marginalization (referred to as minority stressors) that are ...detrimental to their mental and physical health. Specifically, proximal or internalized LGBTQ+ minority stressors may influence motivation for and willingness to participate in physical activity.
Purpose
To explore whether proximal LGBTQ+ minority stressors relate to the basic psychological needs—motivation—physical activity pathway, as per self-determination theory.
Methods
An online cross-sectional survey was completed by 778 self-identified LGBTQ+ adults. Structural equation modelling analyses were used to examine how proximal LGBTQ+ minority stressors relate to the motivational sequence.
Results
Findings support that proximal LGBTQ+ minority stressors are negatively associated with psychological need satisfaction within physical activity (β = −.36), which in turn is positively associated with autonomous motivation (β = .53) and reported physical activity participation (β = .32). Overall, the final model accounted for 13% of variance in need satisfaction (small effect size), 53% of variance in autonomous motivation (moderate-large effect size), and 10% of variance in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity levels (small effect size).
Conclusions
Future research focused on increasing LGBTQ+ participation in physical activity should investigate the effects of (a) reducing proximal LGBTQ+ minority stressors and (b) better supporting LGBTQ+ adults’ autonomy, competence, and relatedness within physical activity contexts.
Stresses experienced by LGBTQ+ adults, such as concealing ones' identity and feeling isolated, were negatively associated with feeling in control, competent, and connected to others within physical activity settings which, in turn, reduced motivation to participate in physical activity.
Peer mentorship is a flagship program utilized by Canadian community-based spinal cord injury (SCI) organizations. Through connecting trained SCI peer mentors with fellow adults with SCI, these ...programs help adults adapt and thrive following their injury. The objective of this meta-synthesis was to work with SCI community organizations and to identify outcomes of participating in community- or rehabilitation-based peer mentorship programs using an integrated knowledge translation approach.
A meta-synthesis of 21 qualitative peer-reviewed studies and 66 community documents was conducted.
A total of 87 outcomes of peer mentorship were identified.
The outcomes of peer mentorship were grouped according to six higher-order themes: 1) Independence: enhanced self-sufficiency; 2) Personal growth: positive psychological changes; 3) Activities and participation: greater participation in activities and events; 4) Adaptation: adapting to life with disability; 5) Knowledge: obtaining new information, resources, and opportunities; and 6) Connection: developing and maintaining social relationship.
The positive nature of the identified outcomes suggests that participating in peer mentorship can promote improved health and quality of life for adults with SCI. Furthermore, the integrated knowledge translation approach helped identify outcomes that were previously not examined within SCI peer mentorship research, thus providing important insight for future research.
•Autonomous motivation is linked to less PSU, anxiety, insomnia, and stress.•Controlled motivation is linked to higher PSU, anxiety, insomnia, and stress.•Amotivation is linked to higher PSU, ...anxiety, insomnia, and stress.
Considering the rising integration of smartphones into classrooms, the purpose of this research was to explore the relationship between problematic smartphone use (PSU) and negative outcomes through the lens of self-determination theory. This study examined 1,039 students’ reported academic motivation, PSU, anxiety, insomnia, and perceived stress. The first objective of this study was to examine how motivational orientations could predict PSU. Then, we examined how motivational orientations and PSU, when used as a mediating variable, could be modeled to predict negative student mental health outcomes (anxiety, insomnia, and perceived stress). As predicted, statistically significant results suggested that autonomous academic motivation was associated with less PSU (β = −0.16), as well as less anxiety (β = −0.12), insomnia (β = −0.16), and stress (β = −0.10). In contrast, higher levels of controlled academic motivation were associated with more PSU (β = 0.37), as well as higher levels of anxiety (β = 0.49) and insomnia (β = 0.41). Amotivation was also positively related to PSU (β = 0.17), anxiety (β = 0.36), insomnia (β = 0.62), and stress (β = 0.22). All indirect effects (mediation effects) were statistically significant and in the predicted direction: the impact of autonomous motivation on negative outcomes was mediated by lower levels of PSU while controlled motivation and amotivation were mediated by higher levels of PSU. Overall, this study advanced the understanding of PSU in university classrooms by demonstrating a link with academic motivation and mental health outcomes.
To explore sexuality after spinal cord injury (SCI) from the perspectives of individuals with SCI and their romantic partners.
A sample of 8 Canadian adults with SCI (6 men, 2 women) and their ...partners participated in this study (N = 16). Semi-structured dyadic and individual interviews were conducted, discussions surrounding sexuality and intimacy were extracted, and a qualitative description of the interview data was performed using thematic analysis.
Three major themes were identified: the changing definition of sex; emotions; and practical support. Couples' conversations around the changing definition of sex after SCI addressed the taboo topic of sexuality and the importance of communication between couples, peers, and healthcare providers. Emotions included fears of losing intimacy, embarrassment in managing bladder and bowel interference, and acceptance in balancing being a romantic partner and a caregiver. Finally, couples reported challenges accessing practical support including medical interventions and sexual health nurses, but saw value in peer mentorship programs.
Couples explored a changing definition of sex following SCI that was complicated by the taboo nature of discussing sexuality, experienced a range of emotions throughout the recovery process, and had difficulties navigating the healthcare system for appropriate support.
IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATION
Healthcare professionals should promote discussion and provide support for sexuality following SCI, but during initial rehabilitation may be too early.
Healthcare providers should prepare people with SCI and their partners for the inevitable trial-and-error process involved in sexual rehabilitation.
Rehabilitation professionals could direct couples to SCI peer mentorship programs to help normalize the experiences and emotions of sexual rehabilitation.
The inclusion of transgender athletes in sport challenges a number of long-standing cis-heteronormative beliefs within athletics at all levels of competition. There are limited studies examining the ...integration and experiences of transgender athletes within amateur sport. The following case study follows the experiences of a transgender synchronized figure skater, Mason, who was able to continue competing throughout his transition process. We conducted eight semi-structured one-on-one interviews with Mason, his teammates, his team manager, and his past and present coaches. All interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed verbatim, and subject to thematic analysis which resulted in four overarching themes: (a) building inclusivity: “promote a safe space,” (b) acknowledging stress, (c) disclosure: “I didn’t want to talk about my past,” and (d) celebration. Results are interpreted as recommendations for coaches on how to adopt inclusive practices to better support transgender athletes.
The Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire 3 (BREQ3) is the most widely used instrument to measure exercise motivation under the self-determination theory (SDT) framework. It consists of 23 ...items measuring the six behavioral regulations advanced within SDT (intrinsic, integrated, identified, introjected, external, and amotivated) and has been used to track exercise motivation in young, old, active, and nonactive samples all over the world. In recent years, the instrument has been incorporated into applied and intervention-based research and due to limited resources and recruitment challenges in certain populations, assessments using the BREQ3 may need to be done more efficiently. As such, there is a need to develop shorter versions of the BREQ3 that enhance flexibility in research. In Studies 1 and 2, we created a 12-item BREQ3-12 (two items per behavior regulation) and a six-item BREQ3-6 (single item per behavior regulation). Then, we demonstrated the factor structure was commensurate with SDT and evidence of score reliability and criterion validity aligned with the full 23-item version (BREQ3-23). In Study 3, participants were randomly assigned to complete the BREQ3-6, BREQ3-12, or the BREQ3-23 and we replicated the results supporting that the factor structure, reliability, and validity of scores derived from the BREQ3-6 and BREQ3-12 aligned with scores from the BREQ3-23. Overall, the findings provide preliminary support for two shorter forms of the BREQ3-23 that may be useful for research in applied settings, interventions, or tracking changes in motives over time using multiwave, longitudinal research designs.
This study investigated the longitudinal trajectories of athletes' competitive performance results, as well as the motivational predictors of the emerging trajectories. In 2010, a group of 413 ...competitive swimmers were asked to provide background characteristics (age, gender, years of experience) and complete self-determination theory-based measures of their coaches' interpersonal behaviors and sport motivation. The athletes' performances were then followed for seven swimming seasons (2011-2017) and their top score from each season was used to track their trajectories over time. The data were analyzed using latent class growth analysis to determine the best-fitting model of performance trajectories, while controlling for athletes' background characteristics. Athletes' perceptions of coaches' behaviors and their motivation were explored as predictors using a multinomial logistic regression. The analyses revealed 5 latent classes: Early Dropout (23%) Delayed Dropout (40%), Stable (9%), Improvement (18%), and High-Performance (11%). Multinomial logistic regression analysis indicated that, in 2010, members of the Improvement and High-Performance classes reported higher perceived autonomy support (ORs >1.58, CI95s > 1.00) and relatedness support (ORs >1.58, CI95s > 1.00) than the Early Dropout and Delayed Dropout groups. The Stable, Improvement, and High-Performance groups reported less non-self-determined motivation in 2010 than the Early Dropout and Delayed Dropout Groups (ORs < .43, CI95s < 1.00). These results support that perceptions of coaches' interpersonal behaviors and athletes' motivation predict performance trajectories among swimmers over time.
The objective was to conduct an implementation evaluation (participant engagement and delivery fidelity) of a pilot randomized controlled trial aimed at increasing physical activity motivation and ...participation for adults with a spinal cord injury. Ten adults with a spinal cord injury completed 8 online counseling sessions with a physical activity counselor who aimed to engage in 31 intervention behaviors aligned with self-determination theory (protocol). Three metrics were examined to assess participant engagement and delivery fidelity: participants' (n = 10) reported engagement in the activities and perceptions of the counselor's behavior, counselor's perceived participant engagement and reported adherence to the intervention behaviors (n = 80 sessions), and independent coders' evaluations of participant engagement and counselor's intervention behaviors in selected sessions (n = 12 sessions). Participants' reported engagement (M = 4.13/5, SD = 0.49) and perceived counselor's intervention behaviors (M = 6.23/7, SD = 0.54) were strong. The counselor reported high participant engagement (M = 4.14/5, SD = 0.84) and a 65% adherence rate to the protocol. Independent coders found participants were engaged during the session (M = 4.17/5, SD = 0.72) and spoke for 78% of the time. The counselor had an overall adherence rate of 43% and performed intervention behaviors 81% of the time they spoke. Participants engaged with the intervention by actively contributing to the discussions and the counselor delivered the intervention according to the protocol. Results increase confidence that the pilot randomized controlled trial results are owing to the intervention design and delivery, and not to extraneous factors.
The objective of the present study is to build upon the existing literature examining the coaching context and how it relates to coaches' use of autonomy-supportive interpersonal behaviours (i.e. ...Stebbings, Taylor, Spray, & Ntoumanis, 2012) by identifying additional environmental factors and exploring the role of coach motivation.
An academic model designed by Pelletier, Seguin-Levesque, and Legault (2002) to predict teacher motivation and autonomy-supportive styles in academic settings, was adapted to the coaching context.
The influence of pressure from above (sport administrations) and pressure from below (athlete motivation) on coach motivation and autonomy-supportive coaching behaviours was tested using structural equation modeling.
Results support the fit of the model in a sport context.
Pressure from above, pressure from below, and coach motivation predict coaches’ reported use of autonomy-supportive behaviours.
•A model predicting autonomy-supportive behaviours in coaching was tested.•Environmental factors, motivation, and autonomy-supportive behaviour were tested.•Structural equation modelling was used to test the model.•Results found administrative pressure and athlete motivation impacted motivation.•Autonomy-supportive behaviour was predicted by coach and athlete motivation.
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