Conditions in super star clusters (SSCs) lead to the formation of dozens of massive stars in close proximity. However, SSCs are rare in the local universe. H72.97-69.39, located in the N79 region of ...the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC), is an SSC candidate. In this paper we report the ALMA observations of the potential SSC. ALMA reveals colliding filaments, outflows, an H ii region, and a C ii region associated with this cluster. The timescale of the outflow is 65,000 yr, which is consistent with this being a young cluster. The molecular gas around this potential early-stage SSC candidate is complex in nature on small scales (as seen with ALMA) and large scales (as seen with Herschel).
We present K-band integral field spectroscopic observations towards 17 massive young stellar objects (YSOs) in the low-metallicity Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) and two YSO candidates in the compact H ...II regions N81 and N88 A (also in the SMC). These sources, originally identified using Spitzer photometry and/or spectroscopy, have been resolved into 29 K-band continuum sources. By comparing Br gamma emission luminosities with those presented for a Galactic sample of massive YSOs, we find tentative evidence for increased accretion rates in the SMC. Around half of our targets exhibit emission-line (Br gamma , He I and H sub( 2)) morphologies that extend significantly beyond the continuum source and we have mapped both the emission morphologies and the radial velocity fields. This analysis also reveals evidence for the existence of ionized low-density regions in the centre outflows from massive YSOs. Additionally, we present an analysis of optical spectra towards a similar sample of massive YSOs in the SMC, revealing that the optical emission is photoexcited and originates near the outer edges of molecular clouds, and is therefore consistent with a high mean-free path of UV photons in the interstellar medium (ISM) of the SMC. Finally, we discuss the sample of YSOs in an evolutionary context incorporating the results of previous infrared and radio observations, as well as the near-infrared and optical observations presented in this work. Our spectroscopic analysis in both the K band and the optical regimes, combined with previously obtained infrared and radio data, exposes differences between properties of massive YSOs in our own Galaxy and the SMC, including tracers of accretion, discs and YSO-ISM interactions.
We report results of an extensive observational campaign of the 6 cm formaldehyde maser in the young massive stellar object IRAS 18566+0408 (G37.55+0.20) conducted from 2002 to 2009. Using the ...Arecibo Telescope, the Very Large Array, and the Green Bank Telescope, we discovered quasi-periodic formaldehyde flares (P {approx} 237 days). Based on Arecibo observations, we also discovered correlated variability between formaldehyde (H{sub 2}CO) and methanol (CH{sub 3}OH) masers. The H{sub 2}CO and CH{sub 3}OH masers are not spatially coincident, as demonstrated by different line velocities and high angular resolution MERLIN observations. The flares could be caused by variations in the infrared radiation field, possibly modulated by periodic accretion onto a young binary system.
ABSTRACT
We present Herschel Space Observatory Photodetector Array Camera and Spectrometer (PACS) and Spectral and Photometric Imaging Receiver Fourier Transform Spectrometer (SPIRE FTS) spectroscopy ...of a sample of 20 massive Young Stellar Objects (YSOs) in the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds (LMC and SMC). We analyse the brightest far-infrared (far-IR) emission lines, that diagnose the conditions of the heated gas in the YSO envelope and pinpoint their physical origin. We compare the properties of massive Magellanic and Galactic YSOs. We find that O i and C ii emission, that originates from the photo-dissociation region associated with the YSOs, is enhanced with respect to the dust continuum in the Magellanic sample. Furthermore the photoelectric heating efficiency is systematically higher for Magellanic YSOs, consistent with reduced grain charge in low metallicity environments. The observed CO emission is likely due to multiple shock components. The gas temperatures, derived from the analysis of CO rotational diagrams, are similar to Galactic estimates. This suggests a common origin to the observed CO excitation, from low-luminosity to massive YSOs, both in the Galaxy and the Magellanic Clouds. Bright far-IR line emission provides a mechanism to cool the YSO environment. We find that, even though O i, CO, and C ii are the main line coolants, there is an indication that CO becomes less important at low metallicity, especially for the SMC sources. This is consistent with a reduction in CO abundance in environments where the dust is warmer due to reduced ultraviolet-shielding. Weak H2O and OH emission is detected, consistent with a modest role in the energy balance of wider massive YSO environments.
The Spitzer Surveying the Agents of Galaxy Evolution (SAGE) survey has allowed the identification and analysis of significant samples of Young Stellar Object (YSO) candidates in the Large Magellanic ...Cloud (LMC). However, the angular resolution of Spitzer is relatively poor meaning that at the distance of the LMC, it is likely that many of the Spitzer
YSO candidates in fact contain multiple components. We present high-resolution K-band integral field spectroscopic observations of the three most prominent massive YSO candidates in the N113 H ii region using Very Large Telescope/Spectrograph for INtegral Field Observations in the Near Infrared (VLT/SINFONI). We have identified six K-band continuum sources within the three Spitzer sources and we have mapped the morphology and velocity fields of extended line emission around these sources. Br γ, He i and H2 emission is found at the position of all six K-band sources; we discuss whether the emission is associated with the continuum sources or whether it is ambient emission. H2 emission appears to be mostly ambient emission and no evidence of CO emission arising in the discs of YSOs has been found. We have mapped the centroid velocities of extended Br γ emission and He i emission and found evidence of two expanding compact H ii regions. One source shows compact and strong H2 emission suggestive of a molecular outflow. The diversity of spectroscopic properties observed is interpreted in the context of a range of evolutionary stages associated with massive star formation.
The Magellanic Clouds are uniquely placed to study the stellar contribution to dust emission. Individual stars can be resolved in these systems even in the mid-infrared, and they are close enough to ...allow detection of infrared excess caused by dust. We have searched the Spitzer Space Telescope data archive for all Infrared Spectrograph (IRS) staring-mode observations of the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) and found that 209 Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) point sources within the footprint of the Surveying the Agents of Galaxy Evolution in the Small Magellanic Cloud (SAGE-SMC) Spitzer Legacy programme were targeted, within a total of 311 staring-mode observations. We classify these point sources using a decision tree method of object classification, based on infrared spectral features, continuum and spectral energy distribution shape, bolometric luminosity, cluster membership and variability information. We find 58 asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars, 51 young stellar objects, 4 post-AGB objects, 22 red supergiants, 27 stars (of which 23 are dusty OB stars), 24 planetary nebulae (PNe), 10 Wolf–Rayet stars, 3 H ii regions, 3 R Coronae Borealis stars, 1 Blue Supergiant and 6 other objects, including 2 foreground AGB stars. We use these classifications to evaluate the success of photometric classification methods reported in the literature.
We report multi-frequency Very Large Array observations of three massive star formation regions (MSFRs) containing radio continuum components that were identified as broad radio recombination line ...(RRL) sources and hypercompact (HC) H II region candidates in our previous H92 Delta *a and H76 Delta *a study: G10.96+0.01 (component W), G28.20--0.04 (N), and G34.26+0.15 (B). An additional HC H II region candidate, G45.07+0.13, known to have broad H66 Delta *a and H76 Delta *a lines, small size, high electron density, and emission measure, was also included. We observed with high spatial resolution (09-23) the H53 Delta *a, H66 Delta *a, H76 Delta *a, and H92 Delta *a RRLs and the radio continuum at the corresponding wavelengths (0.7-3.6 cm). The motivation for these observations was to obtain RRLs over a range of principal quantum states to look for signatures of pressure broadening and macroscopic velocity structure. We find that pressure broadening contributes significantly to the linewidths, but it is not the sole cause of the broad lines. We compare radio continuum and dust emission distributions and find a good correspondence. We also discuss maser emission and multi-wavelength observations reported in the literature for these MSFRs.
The Spitzer Space Telescope Legacy Program SAGE-SMC allows global studies of resolved stellar populations in the SMC in a different environment than our Galaxy. Using the SAGE-SMC IRAC (3.6-8.0 mu m) ...and MIPS (24 and 70 mu m) catalogs and images combined with near-infrared (JHK sub(s)) and optical (UBVI) data, we identified a population of ~1000 intermediate- to high-mass young stellar objects (YSOs) in the SMC (three times more than previously known). Our method of identifying YSO candidates builds on the method developed for the Large Magellanic Cloud by Whitney et al. with improvements based on what we learned from our subsequent studies and techniques described in the literature. We perform (1) color-magnitude cuts based on five color-magnitude diagrams (CMDs), (2) visual inspection of multi-wavelength images, and (3) spectral energy distribution (SED) fitting with YSO models. For each YSO candidate, we use its photometry to calculate a measure of our confidence that the source is not a non-YSO contaminant, but rather a true YSO, based on the source's location in the color-magnitude space with respect to non-YSOs. We use this CMD score and the SED fitting results to define two classes of sources: high-reliability YSO candidates and possible YSO candidates. We found that, due to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emission, about half of our sources have 3.6-4.5 and 4.5-5.8 colors not predicted by previous YSO models. The YSO candidates are spatially correlated with gas tracers.
We combine Spitzer and Herschel data of the star-forming region N11 in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) to produce detailed maps of the dust properties in the complex and study their variations with ...the interstellar-medium conditions. We also compare Atacama Pathfinder EXperiment/Large APEX Bolometer Camera (APEX/LABOCA) 870 μm observations with our model predictions in order to decompose the 870 μm emission into dust and non-dust free–free emission and CO(3–2) line contributions. We find that in N11, the 870 μm can be fully accounted for by these three components. The dust surface density map of N11 is combined with H i and CO observations to study local variations in the gas-to-dust mass ratios. Our analysis leads to values lower than those expected from the LMC low-metallicity as well as to a decrease of the gas-to-dust mass ratio with the dust surface density. We explore potential hypotheses that could explain the low ‘observed’ gas-to-dust mass ratios (variations in the X
CO factor, presence of CO-dark gas or of optically thick H i or variations in the dust abundance in the dense regions). We finally decompose the local spectral energy distributions (SEDs) using a principal component analysis (i.e. with no a priori assumption on the dust composition in the complex). Our results lead to a promising decomposition of the local SEDs in various dust components (hot, warm, cold) coherent with that expected for the region. Further analysis on a larger sample of galaxies will follow in order to understand how unique this decomposition is or how it evolves from one environment to another.
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