Research on the socio-economic aspects of marine protected areas (MPAs) in South Africa is reviewed to guide evaluation and integration. After a brief international review, we used declaration ...notices and management plans to determine the extent to which social and economic objectives have been included in the purpose statements of MPAs. We then reviewed the current state of knowledge about the social and economic effects of South African MPAs. While many MPAs have purposes and objectives that include some social and economic objectives, these are limited in scope. Most of the MPAs that were declared before 2019 did not include objectives directly related to people or their needs. Social or economic research has been undertaken in fewer than half of the 23 coastal MPAs. Literature is largely limited to: (i) studies on negative impacts of MPAs on adjacent rural communities; (ii) selected aspects of tourism; and (iii) various aspects related to resource use. A wide range of other tangible and intangible effects, including those experienced by a broader set of stakeholders and over differing scales of time and space, have seldom been addressed. A case study on the Tsitsikamma MPA exemplifies challenges associated with understanding the full scope of social and economic aspects of MPAs. We conclude with recommendations to address the challenges of building a better understanding of the social and economic effects of MPAs, ensuring that these are addressed in establishing or revising objectives for each MPA, and assessing the extent to which the objectives meet both human and environmental needs.
We reviewed 140 papers to assess the ecological effectiveness of South Africa's marine protected areas (MPAs). Evidence was assessed for coverage and representivity, protection of important ...biodiversity areas, other recognised elements of effectiveness, connectivity, and ecological effects-from the scale of individual MPAs to the MPA network scale. We conducted complementary novel analyses to supplement the review and to objectively determine where and how the MPA network can be improved. Evidence shows that South Africa's MPAs now provide some protection to all ecoregions and 87% of ecosystem types but to less than 50% of assessed species groups. MPAs are generally well-sited, but gaps were revealed on the west coast and in estuaries, the deep sea, and two ecologically and biologically significant areas. Enforcement emerged as a key concern, and many MPAs could be improved through expansion or by increasing no-take areas. The majority of relevant papers recorded beneficial ecological effects, detectable as increases in parameters such as the abundance, biomass, sizes or reproductive output of species. Few papers examined whether ecological benefits translate into adjacent fisheries benefits, but all those that did recorded positive effects. Full protection was more effective than partial protection, with effectiveness most clearly demonstrated for vulnerable target taxa. Further research and monitoring to achieve evaluations of effectiveness are recommended, with greater focus on neglected MPAs and species. Understanding the ecological connectivity between MPAs, an important dimension for climate-change adaptation and hence for the persistence and resilience of South Africa's marine biodiversity, is identified as a key area for future research and inclusion in MPA planning.
Fine-scale maps of fishing activity are valuable information layers for fisheries management, assessments of biodiversity impacts and marine spatial planning. Our aim was to develop an accurate map ...of demersal trawling intensity in South Africa and to demonstrate its utility at a national scale. We calculated a swept area ratio, representing demersal trawling effort for the entire study period (2005‒2018) and annually. We then plotted spatial and temporal patterns of trawling activity, identified core fishing areas, and examined spatial overlap between trawling, South Africa's marine ecosystem types and the national network of marine protected areas. A high proportion of trawling effort (90%) was concentrated in 43% of the area exposed to trawling, with the remaining 10% spread across 57% of the fished areas. The fishery overlaps with 33 of 150 benthic and bentho-pelagic marine ecosystem types. Of those, 11 have more than 50% of their extent, and five have more than 80%, within the trawl ring-fence. Our analyses support a systematic prioritisation of ecosystem types for further management and protection. The new South African trawling-intensity map contributes an improved pressure layer for ecosystem assessments, can help identify priority fishing areas and has application in conservation, marine spatial planning and fisheries management.
Ecosystem status assessments are generally separated into realm-specific analyses (terrestrial, freshwater, estuarine or marine), but without integrating these into a coherent assessment of coastal ...biodiversity across the land-sea interface. Trends in assessment indicators in coastal versus non-coastal areas have also rarely been considered. In this study we aimed to compile the first cross-realm national biodiversity assessment for the South African coast using three key indicators. The ecological condition, ecosystem threat status, and ecosystem protection level of coastal ecosystem types (n = 186) were determined and compared with those of non-coastal ecosystem types (n = 444). Nearly half (46.9%) of the South African coastal habitat has been degraded compared with 20% of non-coastal areas. Proportionately, there are three-times (60%) as many threatened coastal ecosystem types (or 55% by area) as there are threatened non-coastal ecosystem types (19%, 6% by area). Despite the impacted state of coastal biodiversity, protection levels are generally higher in the coastal zone (87% of ecosystem types have some protection) compared with non-coastal areas (75%), although fewer coastal ecosystem types have met their biodiversity targets (24%, vs 28% for non-coastal ecosystem types). These results illustrate the importance of using a cross-realm approach for status assessments, management and conservation of coastal biodiversity. The assessment methods described are flexible and widely applicable to other regions.
The efficacy of marine protected areas (MPAs) depends on their governance and management. We review their history in South Africa and recognise four periods. Period 1 (1964-1994) provided initial ...protection but was based on exclusionary, preservationist policies, was ad hoc in the absence of a national plan, and neglected social considerations. Period 2 (1994-2010) began introducing people-oriented policies, focused on ecosystems rather than species, and was strengthened by the formation of a national coordinating body. Period 3 (2010-2019) heralded improvements in design, ecosystem representation and stakeholder engagement, yet fractured governance hindered coordination and management. Period 4 (Since 2019) added challenges in managing new offshore MPAs. Progress in achieving effective MPA governance and management was assessed over these periods for 17 components of governance and management, representing key issues for which changes could be identified throughout. Fifteen components indicated overall improvements-most notably legislation and policies, MPA establishment, planning and design, and staff training and skills-whereas progress for most of the other components was weaker. Zero net gains were recorded for enforcement and compliance, and for the staff complement. Our recommendations flow principally from components assessed as faring poorly. We conclude with eight critical needs: (1) specify detailed objectives for every MPA; (2) fast-track management plans for new MPAs; (3) improve law enforcement and compliance; (4) enhance participation of adjacent communities and other stakeholders; (5) address MPA-related social impacts and injustices, and improve benefit sharing; (6) ensure financial sustainability; (7) strengthen evaluations of management effectiveness; and (8) improve cooperation between government authorities responsible for MPAs and fisheries.
South Africa has a long history of engagement in citizen science (CS), particularly marine CS. This review examines the contributions made by marine CS, from the 1930s through to the current era, ...where websites, social media and mobile apps provide a wide range of opportunities. Largescale marine CS projects, such as the Oceanographic Research Institute's Cooperative Fish Tagging Project, have made enormous contributions to marine scientific research. Individual citizen scientists have also made considerable contributions, particularly in taxonomy and the publication of field guides. Marine CS has also contributed towards the popularisation of science and improved scientific literacy through the active engagement of many citizens. These benefits align well with the visions of policies that currently guide the South African marine research agenda. However, marine CS in the developing world is not without challenges, and practitioners should be cognisant of the time and effort required to initiate and maintain viable CS initiatives. Especially, long-term successful CS projects depend on secure, ongoing funding, institutional support and enthusiastic champions. Participation by almost exclusively the urban and middle-class sectors of society is also of concern. These challenges can be addressed through stakeholder-inclusive planning, development of novel methods that engage with broader sectors of society, and regular critical evaluations of CS projects. Where global projects on the intended taxa/subject of study already exist, it may also be preferable to enter into collaborative data-sharing agreements with these to reduce operational costs and avoid duplication.
On the east coast of southern Africa, marine biogeographic boundaries have previously been unresolved. This paper analyses large-scale patterns of community structure of rocky intertidal shores along ...the whole of the KwaZulu-Natal coast, based on abundance data covering 220 macroalgal and invertebrate species at 39 sites and using hierarchical cluster analyses and multidimensional scaling to define biogeographic regions. ANOSIM showed that rocky shores in the northernmost region, termed Maputaland, were significantly different from those in three other regions to the south, which fall within a single biogeographic region termed the Natal Province. A clear biogeographic break between these two provinces was identified at Cape Vidal Point, with >65% Bray Curtis dissimilarity in community structure between Maputaland and Natal. This break was detectable in both the low and mid shore, but in the high and top shore, communities converged and there was no regional differentiation for these zones. There was no evidence of a previously suggested biogeographic break near Durban. The major species distinguishing Maputaland and Natal were identified using SIMPER analyses and correspond with previously described differences between Moçambique and KwaZulu-Natal. Species characteristic of Maputaland have tropical affinities and it is proposed that this region forms part of the tropical Indo-West Pacific Province. Natal appears sufficiently distinctive to be recognised as a subtropical biogeographic province different from Maputaland, and possibly different from the warm-temperate South Coast Agulhas Province. The virtual absence of representative unexploited shores in the Natal Province and the occurrence of subsistence harvesting on almost all rocky shores in Maputaland (including those in theoretically protected areas), constitute obvious gaps in the biodiversity conservation strategy of KwaZulu-Natal.
Confusion between terms and ambiguities among definitions have long plagued the field of invasion biology. One result is disruption in flow of information from researchers to policy-makers and ...managers who rely on science to inform regulatory frameworks and management actions. We reviewed the South African marine biology literature to quantify the current usage of terminology describing marine invasions and found a variety of terms in use, few of which are defined when used. In response, we propose standard terminology that aligns with international practice. We then interpreted the Blackburn unified framework for biological invasions within the marine context and used this as a transparent way to apply the standardised terms to an updated list of marine alien species for the country. This resulted in the recognition of 36 alien and 53 invasive species within South Africa. Most notably, follow-up research is required to confirm the status of at least 11 listed species, the majority of which have been recorded only once, or not in the past 25 years. It is hoped that by standardising terminology, marine science in South Africa will better support authorities charged with managing the threat posed by marine alien species.
Distinctions are rarely made between vertical and horizontal surfaces when assessing reef community composition, yet physical differences are expected because of hydrodynamic differences and sediment ...accumulation on flat surfaces. As sand often diminishes biotic cover, we hypothesised that vertical surfaces will support a greater biomass but have lower diversity due to domination by a few species. To test this, we quantified sessile communities on vertical and horizontal surfaces at three sites in the Delagoa Bioregion on the east coast of South Africa. Community composition consistently differed: vertical communities were dominated by various filter feeders, especially the ascidian Pyura stolonifera, whereas those on horizontal reef comprised a mixture of filter feeders and various algae. The total number of species and all diversity metrics were significantly greater for horizontal reef surfaces. Contrastingly, Simpson's dominance and biomass were significantly greater for vertical reef surfaces. Percentage cover of sand explained much of the variation in community composition whereas depth did not. Small-scale topographic differences in substratum orientation associated with differences in sand inundation will therefore influence both α and β diversity. Coastal developments and activities that alter sand movements and delivery to the coastal zone are therefore likely to have a profound influence on the maintenance and diversity of shallow subtidal communities.
In the Natal Bioregion of eastern South Africa, biomass of marine subtidal filter feeders is particularly high and makes a central contribution to distinguishing this bioregion from adjacent ones. We ...analysed the trophic role of riverine suspended particulate organic matter (POM) and the extent to which subsidies from rivers may explain this high filter-feeder biomass. Using carbon, nitrogen and sulphur isotopes, and a 3-end-member Bayesian-mixing model, we determined (1) the proportions of various primary producers contributing to the inshore POM pool and (2) the relative amounts of marine seaweed, pelagic POM and riverine POM assimilated by filter-feeder communities at various distances from 4 river mouths during austral summer and winter. Of the inshore POM pool available to filter feeders, riverine POM contributed 17 to 62%, pelagic POM 18 to 77% and seaweed 6 to 53%. The contributions of riverine POM to inshore POM declined significantly with distance from river mouth, but were unaffected by season or river size. Most material assimilated by filter feeders was of marine origin, notably seaweed detritus (39–62%), but with a noteworthy uptake of riverine POM (9–33%). Only small seasonal differences (<10%) and no biologically meaningful spatial trends were detected in the proportional assimilation of the 3 food sources by filter feeders. Although important, the trophic contribution of riverine POM may be subordinate to other factors such as turbidity and productivity in explaining the high biomass of filter feeders. Collectively, however, these river-associated factors are likely to explain the contrasts in trophic organisation among marine bioregions.
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