Conservation organizations have increasingly raised concerns about escalating rates of illegal hunting and trade in wildlife. Previous studies have concluded that people hunt illegally because they ...are financially poor or lack alternative livelihood strategies. However, there has been little attempt to develop a richer understanding of the motivations behind contemporary illegal wildlife hunting. As a first step, we reviewed the academic and policy literatures on poaching and illegal wildlife use and considered the meanings of poverty and the relative importance of structure and individual agency. We placed motivations for illegal wildlife hunting within the context of the complex history of how wildlife laws were initially designed and enforced to indicate how hunting practices by specific communities were criminalized. We also considered the nature of poverty and the reasons for economic deprivation in particular communities to indicate how particular understandings of poverty as material deprivation ultimately shape approaches to illegal wildlife hunting. We found there is a need for a much better understanding of what poverty is and what motivates people to hunt illegally.
Tigers are critically endangered due to deforestation and persecution. Yet in places, Sumatran tigers (Panthera tigris sumatrae) continue to coexist with people, offering insights for managing ...wildlife elsewhere. Here, we couple spatial models of encounter risk with information on tolerance from 2386 Sumatrans to reveal drivers of human-tiger conflict. Risk of encountering tigers was greater around populated villages that neighboured forest or rivers connecting tiger habitat; geographic profiles refined these predictions to three core areas. People's tolerance for tigers was related to underlying attitudes, emotions, norms and spiritual beliefs. Combining this information into socio-ecological models yielded predictions of tolerance that were 32 times better than models based on social predictors alone. Pre-emptive intervention based on these socio-ecological predictions could have averted up to 51% of attacks on livestock and people, saving 15 tigers. Our work provides further evidence of the benefits of interdisciplinary research on conservation conflicts.
Conservation is at a critical juncture because of the increase in poaching which threatens key species. Poaching is a major public concern, as indicated by the rises in rhino and elephant poaching, ...the United for Wildlife Initiative and the London Declaration, signed by 46 countries in February 2014. This is accompanied by an increasing calls for a more forceful response, especially to tackle the involvement of organized crime in wildlife trafficking. However, there is a risk that this will be counter-productive. Further, such calls are based on a series of assumptions which are worthy of greater scrutiny. First, calls for militarization are based on the idea that poverty drives poaching. Yet, poaching and trafficking are changing because of the shifting dynamics of poverty in supply countries, coupled with changing patterns of wealth in consumer markets. Second, the ways increases in poaching are being linked to global security threats, notably from Al Shabaab are poorly evidenced and yet circulate in powerful policy circles. There is a risk that militarization will place more heavily armed rangers in the centre of some of the most complex regional conflicts in the world (such as the Horn of Africa and Central Africa/Sahel region).
The trade in wildlife and keeping of exotic pets is subject to varying levels of national and international regulation and is a topic often attracting controversy. Reptiles are popular exotic pets ...and comprise a substantial component of the live animal trade. High mortality of traded animals raises welfare concerns, and also has implications for conservation if collection from the wild is required to meet demand. Mortality of reptiles can occur at any stage of the trade chain from collector to consumer. However, there is limited information on mortality rates of reptiles across trade chains, particularly amongst final consumers in the home. We investigated mortality rates of reptiles amongst consumers using a specialised technique for asking sensitive questions, additive Randomised Response Technique (aRRT), as well as direct questioning (DQ). Overall, 3.6% of snakes, chelonians and lizards died within one year of acquisition. Boas and pythons had the lowest reported mortality rates of 1.9% and chameleons had the highest at 28.2%. More than 97% of snakes, 87% of lizards and 69% of chelonians acquired by respondents over five years were reported to be captive bred and results suggest that mortality rates may be lowest for captive bred individuals. Estimates of mortality from aRRT and DQ did not differ significantly which is in line with our findings that respondents did not find questions about reptile mortality to be sensitive. This research suggests that captive reptile mortality in the home is rather low, and identifies those taxa where further effort could be made to reduce mortality rates.
1. Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation are key threats to the long-term persistence of carnivores, which are also susceptible to direct persecution by people. Integrating natural and social ...science methods to examine how habitat configuration/quality and human-predator relations may interact in space and time to effect carnivore populations within human-dominated landscapes will help prioritise conservation investment and action effectively. 2. We propose a socioecological modelling framework to evaluate drivers of Carnivore decline in landscapes where predators and people coexist. By collecting social and ecological data at the same spatial scale, candidate models can be used to quantify and tease apart the relative importance of different threats. 3. We apply our methodological framework to an empirical case study, the threatened güiña (Leopardus guigna) in the temperate forest ecoregion of southern Chile, to illustrate its use. Existing literature suggests that the species is declining due to habitat loss, fragmentation and persecution in response to livestock predation. Data used in modelling were derived from four seasons of camera-trap surveys, remotesensed images and household questionnaires. 4. Occupancy dynamics were explained by habitat configuration/quality covariates rather than by human-predator relations. Güiñas can tolerate a high degree of habitat loss (>80% within a home range). They are primarily impacted by fragmentation and land subdivision (larger farms being divided into smaller ones). Ten per cent of surveyed farmers (N = 233) reported illegally killing the species over the past decade. 5. Synthesis and applications. By integrating ecological and social data, collected at the same spatial scale, within a single modelling framework, our study demonstrates the value of an interdisciplinary approach to assessing the potential threats to a carnivore. It has allowed us to tease apart effectively the relative importance of different potential extinction pressures for the güiña (Leopardus guigna), make informed conservation recommendations and prioritise where future interventions should be targeted. We have identified that human-dominated landscapes with large intensive farms can be of conservation value, as long as an appropriate network of habitat patches is maintained within the matrix. Conservation efforts to secure the long-term persistence of the species should focus on reducing habitat fragmentation rather than human persecution.
The effective management of natural systems often requires resource users to change their behaviour. This has led to many applied ecologists using research tools developed by social scientists. This ...comes with challenges as ecologists often lack relevant disciplinary training. Using an example from the current issue of Journal of Applied Ecology that investigated how conservation interventions influenced conservation outcomes, we discuss the challenges of conducting interdisciplinary science. We illustrate our points using examples from research investigating the role of law enforcement and outreach activities in limiting illegal poaching and the application of the theory of planned behaviour to conservation. Synthesis and applications. Interdisciplinary research requires equal rigour to be applied to ecological and social aspects. Researchers with a natural science background need to access expertise and training in the principles of social science research design and methodology, in order to permit a more balanced interdisciplinary understanding of social–ecological systems.
Conservationists need to measure human behavior to guide decisions and evaluate their impact. However, activities can be misreported and reporting accuracy may change following conservation ...interventions, making it hard to verify any apparent changes. Techniques for asking sensitive questions are increasingly integrated into survey designs to improve data quality, but some can be costly or hard for nonexperts to implement. We demonstrate a straightforward, low‐cost approach, the bean method in which respondents give anonymous answers by adding a colored bean to a jar to denote a yes or no response. We applied the bean method to measure wild‐meat hunting and trading over 2 years at a conservation‐project (hunting reduction) site in Gola Forest, Liberia. We extended the technique to accommodate questions about hunting and meat‐selling frequency. We compared responses given using the bean method and direct questioning for groups that did and did not participate in conservation interventions. Results from the bean method corresponded to those from direct questioning, and there was no indication of change in question sensitivity following conservation interventions. Estimates from both methods indicated that wild‐meat trading decreased in project and nonproject households (from 36% to 20%) and that hunting decreased in 1 project group (38–28%). Where inconsistent answers were given (2–6% of respondents), differences were in both directions and were most likely attributable to measurement error. The bean method was quick and straightforward to administer in a low‐literacy setting. We showed how it can be modified for answers of more than 2 categories and consider it a valuable tool that could be adapted for a wide range of conservation settings.
El Método del Frijol como Herramienta para Medir los Comportamientos Sensibles
Resumen
Los conservacionistas necesitan medir el comportamiento humano para dirigir las decisiones tomadas y evaluar su impacto. Sin embargo, las actividades pueden estar mal reportadas y la fiabilidad de los reportes puede cambiar después de implementadas las intervenciones de conservación, lo cual complica la verificación de cualquier cambio aparente. Las técnicas para realizar preguntas sensibles cada vez se integran más al diseño de los censos y así mejorar la calidad de los datos, aunque algunas pueden ser caras o complicadas de implementar para quienes no son expertos. Demostramos una estrategia directa y de bajo costo, el método del frijol, en el cual los respondientes proporcionan respuestas anónimas al añadir un frijol pintado dentro de un frasco y así indicar una respuesta de sí o no. Aplicamos el método del frijol para medir la cacería y el mercado de carne silvestre durante dos años dentro de un proyecto de conservación (reducción de la cacería) en el bosque Gola, Liberia. Extendimos la técnica para acomodar preguntas sobre la frecuencia de la caza y la venta de carne. Comparamos las respuestas dadas usando el método del frijol y aquellas dadas en el cuestionamiento directo a grupos que participaban o no en las intervenciones de conservación. Los resultados obtenidos con el método del frijol correspondieron a aquellos obtenidos con los cuestionamientos directos y no hubo indicación de cambios en la sensibilidad de las preguntas después de las intervenciones de conservación. Las estimaciones de ambos métodos indicaron que el mercado de carne silvestre disminuyó en los hogares participantes o no en el proyecto (de 36% a 20%) y que la cacería disminuyó en un grupo del proyecto (38% a 28%). En donde se dieron respuestas contradictorias (2‐6% de los respondientes), las diferencias fueron en ambas direcciones y en su mayoría probablemente eran atribuibles al error en la medición. El método del frijol fue rápido y directo para administrarlo en un ambiente de bajo alfabetismo. Mostramos cómo puede modificarse para respuestas con más de dos categorías y lo consideramos una herramienta valiosa que podría adaptarse para una gama amplia de escenarios de conservación.
摘要
保护主义者常常需要测量人类行为来指导决策及评估其影响。然而, 对人类行为的报告可能存在问题, 且报告的准确性可能会随着保护措施变化而变化, 以致难以确定明显的变化。设计调查时已越来越多地纳入了询问敏感问题的技巧, 以提高数据质量, 但对于非专业人士来说, 有些技巧可能成本过高或难以实现。本研究展示了一种简单、低成本的方法——bean方法, 在使用该方法时, 受访者只需向罐子中放入一个彩色的豆子 (bean) 来匿名地回答“是”或“否”。我们在利比里亚戈拉森林利用该方法调查了一个保护项目 (减少狩猎) 中人们对野味狩猎和交易的态度。我们通过扩展相应的方法, 将其应用于狩猎和野味交易频率的提问中, 并在曾经参与和没有参与保护干预的群体中, 比较了使用 bean 方法和直接询问获得的回答。使用 bean 方法的结果与直接询问的结果相互一致, 且在进行保护干预后, 问题敏感性没有明显变化。两种方法的估计结果均表明, 有无参与保护项目的家庭的野味交易都有所下降 (从 36% 减少到 20%), 另外, 保护项目的一个参与组还减少了狩猎 (从 38% 减少到 28%) 。当受访者给出不一致的答案时 (占受访者 2–6%), 差异存在于两个方向, 这最有可能是来自测量误差。 bean 方法在受访者的低文化水平背景下有助于快速而直接的实施调查。我们还展示了当答案超过两种类型时如何调整该方法。最后, 我们认为 bean 方法作为一项保护工具很有价值, 可以广泛适用于不同背景下的保护。【翻译: 胡怡思;审校: 聂永刚】
Researchers and practitioners are increasingly using methods from the social sciences to address complex conservation challenges. This brings benefits but also the responsibility to understand the ...suitability and limitations of these methods in different contexts. After years of use in other disciplines, the unmatched count technique (UCT) has recently been adopted by conservation scientists to investigate illegal and socially undesirable human behaviours. Here we provide guidance for practitioners and researchers on how to apply UCT effectively, and outline situations where it will be the most and least appropriate.
We reviewed 101 publications in refereed journals that used UCT to draw conclusions on its use to date and provide recommendations on when and how to use the method effectively in conservation. In particular, we explored: type of studies undertaken (e.g. disciplines; behaviour being studied; rationale for using UCT); survey administration (e.g. sample size, pilot studies, administration mode); UCT outcomes (e.g. type of analyses, estimates, comparison with other methods); and type of recommendations.
We show that UCT has been used across multiple disciplines and contexts, with 10 studies that focus on conservation and natural resource use. The UCT has been used to investigate topics falling into five categories: socially undesirable behaviours, socially undesirable views, illegal or non‐compliant behaviours, socially desirable behaviours; and personal topics (e.g. being HIV positive). It has been used in 51 countries and is suitable to several situations, but limitations do exist, and the method does not always improve reporting of sensitive topics.
We provide best‐practice guidance to researchers and practitioners considering using UCT. We highlight that alternate methods should be considered if sample sizes are likely to be small, the behaviour in question is likely to be extremely rare, or if the behaviour is not particularly sensitive. UCT can be a useful tool for estimating the extent of non‐compliance within a conservation context, but as with all scientific investigation, careful study design, robust sampling and consistent implementation are required in order for it to be effective.
Sumário
Investigadores e outros conservacionistas têm vindo cada vez mais a usar métodos das ciências sociais para abordar desafios complexos de conservação. Isso traz benefícios, mas também a responsabilidade de entender a adequabilidade e as limitações desses métodos em diferentes contextos. Após anos de uso noutras disciplinas, a técnica de contagem de itens (TCI) foi adotada recentemente por cientistas da conservação para investigar comportamentos humanos ilegais e socialmente indesejáveis. Neste artigo, fornecemos orientações para investigadores e outros profissionais sobre como aplicar a TCI de maneira eficaz e descrevemos situações em que esta técnica poderá ser mais e menos apropriada.
101 artigos que usaram a TCI em publicações arbitradas foram revistos de modo a tirar conclusões sobre o seu uso e fornecer recomendações sobre quando e como usar este método efetivamente em conservação. Em particular, explorámos: tipo de estudos realizados (por exemplo: disciplinas, comportamento em estudos; razão para o uso da TCI); administração da pesquisa (ex.: tamanho da amostra, estudos piloto, modo de administração); resultados da TCI (ex.: tipo de análises, estimativas, comparação com outros métodos) e tipo de recomendações.
Mostramos que a TCI tem sido usada em várias disciplinas e contextos, incluindo 10 estudos sobre a conservação e uso de recursos naturais. A TCI tem sido usada para investigar tópicos que se enquadram em cinco categorias: comportamentos socialmente indesejáveis; opiniões socialmente indesejáveis; comportamentos ilegais ou incumpridores; comportamentos socialmente desejáveis; e tópicos pessoais (por exemplo, ser HIV positivo). Esta técnica já foi usada em 51 países e é adequada para várias situações, mas existem limitações, e o método nem sempre melhora o relato de tópicos sensíveis.
Fornecemos orientação sobre as melhores práticas para investigadores e outros profissionais que estejam a considerar o uso da TIC. Métodos alternativos devem ser considerados se os tamanhos amostrais forem relativamente pequenos, o comportamento em questão extremamente raro, ou se o comportamento não for particularmente sensível. A TCI pode ser uma ferramenta útil para estimar a extensão do incumprimento de regras num contexto de conservação, mas, como em todas as investigações científicas, é necessário planear o estudo cuidadosamente, efetuar uma amostragem robusta e uma implementação consistente para que seja eficaz.
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