In the Central German Uplands, Fagus sylvatica and Picea abies have been particularly affected by climate change. With the establishment of beech forests about 3000 years ago and pure spruce stands ...500 years ago, they might be regarded as ‘neophytes’ in the Hessian forests. Palaeoecological investigations at wetland sites in the low mountain ranges and intramontane basins point to an asynchronous vegetation evolution in a comparatively small but heterogenous region. On the other hand, palynological data prove that sustainably managed woodlands with high proportions of Tilia have been persisting for several millennia, before the spread of beech took place as a result of a cooler and wetter climate and changes in land management. In view of increasingly warmer and drier conditions, Tilia cordata appears especially qualified to be an important silvicultural constituent of the future, not only due to its tolerance towards drought, but also its resistance to browsing, and the ability to reproduce vegetatively. Forest managers should be encouraged to actively promote the return to more stress-tolerant lime-dominated woodlands, similar to those that existed in the Subboreal chronozone.
Waldgirmes in Hesse (Germany) is one of the oldest Roman towns east of the Rhine River. It was founded in 3
bc
and abandoned after
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9, probably in
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16, when the departing soldiers set fire to the ...town. In one of the two excavated wells, partially laminated, organic-rich sediments have been preserved which were deposited during the colonisation of the town. The pollen, plant macro-remains and micromorphological sampling strategy of the well sediment allows us to draw a detailed picture of the vegetation and its development in and around the settlement area. Through thin section analyses, the stratigraphy and composition of sediments could be differentiated in more detail. Deriving from different source areas, the pollen and plant macro-remains assemblages gave insights into the tree species composition of the surroundings as well as the vegetation in the settlement. The town was founded within a cultural landscape that had existed for centuries, and not in the dense dark Germanic forests described by Tacitus around
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100. The contemporaneous woodlands were dominated by oaks. In the well within the town, not only characteristic components of urban waste (bones, charcoal, ash), but also plant remains from the immediate surroundings (pollen, phytoliths, seeds, fruits, leaves) were preserved. Typical urban vegetation from trodden paths, nutrient-enriched sites, and grazing areas could be reconstructed. Thick leaf layers prove the presence of trees, especially oaks, close to the well. Horticulture is evident through cultural indicators, and there are also signs of cereal processing within the settlement.
Broomcorn millet (
Panicum miliaceum
L.) was first domesticated in China and dispersed westward via Central Asia in the 3rd millennium BC, reaching Europe in the 2nd millennium BC. North of the Black ...Sea, the North Pontic steppe and forest-steppe areas are key regions for understanding the westward dispersal of millet, as evidenced by the earliest direct radiocarbon dates on European millet grains, which we present here. Examining various lines of evidence relevant to crop cultivation, animal husbandry, contacts and lifestyles, we explore the regional dynamics of the adoption of millet, broadening knowledge about past subsistence strategies related to the ‘millet farmers/consumers’ who inhabited the northern Black Sea region during the Bronze and Iron Ages. Our re-evaluation of crop evidence contributes to ongoing discussions on the mobility of prehistoric communities in the Eurasian steppe and forest-steppe—for instance, on whether millet was linked to full-time mobile pastoralists, who occasionally grew or only consumed it, or whether it was linked to sedentary farmers and cattle herders who regularly cultivated millet, among other crops. From the Bronze Age to the Late Antique, this crop is attested under different socio-cultural conditions that suggest it was adaptable to stockbreeding and the natural environment and consumed since the mid 2nd millennium BC in the northern Black Sea region.
Located in the Romanian Banat region, the Late Bronze Age (LBA) fortification Corneşti-Iarcuri is the largest known prehistoric settlement in Europe. Archaeobotanical and geoarchaeological ...investigations have targeted the reconstruction of vegetation, land use practices and subsistence strategies at the site, together with related human impact and environmental changes in the wider study area. Since colluvia constitute valuable archives in terms of landscape history and anthropogenic disturbance, one major focus was put on floodplain profiles. In the valleys, two generations of colluvium prevailed which were separated by fossil topsoils. Based on several radiocarbon datings, a chronology of events, including distinct phases of geomorphological activity and stability, has been established. Some of the buried palaeosurfaces contained pollen in sufficient concentrations to confirm off-site data from the Vinga area, where the regional vegetation during the Middle Copper Age consisted of
Tilia
-dominated woodlands with steppe elements. Following a major Late Copper Age deforestation phase that also led to considerable soil erosion, the gradual formation of a cultural landscape is documented by a progressive decline in tree cover in which
Quercus
gained relative importance, and a continuous presence of land use indicators. Plant macro-remains from archaeological excavations underpin both the openness of the semi-natural woodlands during the pre-fortification era and the increase of animal husbandry and farming in the LBA. Despite evident settlement pressure, it proved to be a geomorphologically stable phase. Towards the Early Iron Age, the values of anthropogenic markers in on-site pollen spectra rose to values comparable to those in surface samples.
Located in the eastern Carpathian Basin, a substantial part of the Banat region is characterized by wide undulating plains in which numerous prehistoric sites have been found, from Early Neolithic ...settlements to some of the largest known Late Bronze Age fortifications in Europe such as Corneşti-Iarcuri. Since palynological archives have proven to be extremely rare, respective studies used to concentrate on peat bogs in mountainous areas which occur at minimum distances of 100 km. This paper counters the generalization of such data by presenting the first available pollen records from lowland sites, where an open woodland mainly composed of Tilia, Quercus and Corylus prevailed throughout most of the Holocene. Human impact has been documented since the Early Neolithic, around 6000 cal. BC, but is especially evident in a drastic reduction of tree cover between the Copper and the Early Bronze Age (after 3000 cal. BC), in which fires seem to have played an essential role. From the Late Bronze Age onwards (after 1600 cal. BC), the landscape was eventually transformed into a cultural steppe by intensified land use under increasingly arid conditions.
The Transural steppe is a cultural contact zone between areas east and west of the Ural Mountains. Mobile pastoralism is the traditional way of life in the steppe, while sedentary cultures constitute ...an exception, probably as a result of climatic variations. A change of lifestyle together with other innovations is documented at the turn of the 3rd to the 2nd millennia BC and often believed to have been accompanied by a shift to agro-pastoralism. To examine the ecology and economy in the Bronze Age steppe, we employed a combination of methods. As proxy-data, plant macro-remains from archaeological excavations of Sintashta fortified settlements and pollen from off-site archives were used for a high-resolution palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. Statistical comparisons of past and present pollen spectra show no significant differences in vegetation distribution. This allowed us to map the recent vegetation units by multispectral satellite imagery and to use them for modelling. Models further incorporate steppe productivity, carrying capacity and population figures to estimate herd sizes. Even if the climate was suitable for agriculture, evidence is missing from all botanical records. The economic mainstay was animal husbandry. Models consider autonomous activity zones of at least 4 km radius surrounding each Sintashta settlement where grazing resources could easily sustain the estimated population and their livestock. The river is seen as the determining factor to settle in this region as it provided constant access to water and valuable natural grazing areas. During dry years and winter, the productive meadow steppes functioned as reserve pastures.
Recent developments in morphological and morphometric analyses of charcoal particles have improved our ability to discern characteristics of burnt plant fuel and interpret fire-type changes. However, ...burning experiments linking known plants to these metrics are limited, particularly in open ecosystems. This study presents novel analyses of laboratory-produced charcoal of 22 plant species from the steppe regions of Eurasia (Romania and Russia), along with selected samples from three Holocene charcoal and pollen records from the same areas. We characterise charcoal production, morphologies and morphometrics in these grass-dominated environments, thereby enabling more robust interpretations of fuel sources and fire types for palaeofire research. Our experiments demonstrate that fire temperature can introduce biases in charcoal produced among species. Grass charcoal production was significantly lower and decreased more strongly with fire temperature compared to forbs. This suggests an underrepresentation of terrestrial graminoids in sedimentary charcoal assemblages. Morphometric analyses revealed that graminoid charcoal particles were more elongated (length-to-width ratio L/W=4) and narrower (width-to-length ratio W/L=0.38) than forbs (L/W=3.1 and W/L=0.42, respectively), in agreement with a global compilation for graminoids (L/W=4.3 for grass 5.4 grass and wetland graminoids) and forbs (L/W=2.9). However, overlapping L/W values present a challenge for establishing cut-off values for fuel type identification in charcoal assemblages with mixed fuel sources. Based on our analyses and compiled datasets from experimental burns, L/W values above 3.0 may indicate predominantly herbaceous morphologies in temperate grassland-dominated ecosystems, though values are likely to be higher for grass than forb-dominated grasslands. Notably, terrestrial grasses exhibit shorter aspect ratios (L/W=4.3) than wetland graminoids (L/W=6.4), highlighting that the aspect ratio needs tailoring to the specific environment of its application, i.e. wetland vs. terrestrial ecosystems. The long forms of graminoid charcoal particles also suggest their potential for atmospheric longer-distance transport compared to more spherical particles, meaning they likely provide insights into regional fire history. An important finding is that charcoal of herbaceous plants closely corresponded to the pollen record, highlighting a solid link between the dominant vegetation and fuel burnt in grassland-dominated environments. However, the relationship between woody charcoal and tree pollen may be more complex, as tree pollen can travel atmospherically longer distances compared to woody charcoal. Our results also highlight the complex interplay between local vegetation and charcoal composition with human fire use that needs to be considered when interpreting charcoal morphological records. A critical takeaway from this study is the importance of not assuming the universality of previous research findings and instead employing experimental approaches to characterise charcoal particles in new ecosystems prior to the application of these techniques. Furthermore, this study also highlights recommendations for further research in new geographical areas and proposes methodological adjustments to enhance the usefulness of charcoal analysis in fire research.
Based on Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) and radiocarbon dating we establish chronologies of colluviation and alluviation in different floodplain sections of the northwestern Wetterau loess ...basin (Germany). Similar to some other European valley floors, Holocene floodplain aggradation is marked by two important breaks: (1) a millennial-scale delay between the Neolithic agricultural colluviation and floodplain aggradation. In loess catchments agricultural colluviation started at about 7000 cal. BP and anthropogenic floodplain aggradation only at about 2200 ± 200 cal. BP; (2) a centennial-scale variability in a temporary rise in rates of anthropogenic floodplain aggradation (up to 3.6 ± 1.7 mm/yr) during the High Middle Ages in directly neighbouring reaches. Independent archaeologic, historic, and vegetation records document distinct agricultural histories of hillsides and floodplains and highlight the importance of hydrosedimentary connectivity as compared with land use intensity. The late Iron Age start of alluviation can be linked to the introduction of an integrated land use system with intense cultivation on hillsides and immediate neighbouring floodplains. The centennial-scale variability of medieval peak aggradation is a result of the successive introduction (or temporal failure) of hydraulic water milling infrastructure. Using palaeoecological and geomorphological information for reconstructing cause and consequence of sediment redistribution in coupled human–natural systems requires firm information about the spatial organisation and technological abilities that are associated with socio-agricultural transformations.
Our understanding of prehistoric societal organization at the family level is still limited. Here, we generated genome data from 32 individuals from an approximately 3,800-y-old burial mound ...attributed to the Bronze Age Srubnaya-Alakul cultural tradition at the site of Nepluyevsky, located in the Southern Ural region of Central Eurasia. We found that life expectancy was generally very low, with adult males living on average 8 y longer than females. A total of 35 first-degree, 40 second-degree, and 48 third-degree biological relationships connected 23 of the studied individuals, allowing us to propose a family tree spanning three generations with six brothers at its center. The oldest of these brothers had eight children with two women and the most children overall, whereas the other relationships were monogamous. Notably, related female children above the age of five were completely absent from the site, and adult females were more genetically diverse than males. These results suggest that biological relationships between male siblings played a structural role in society and that descent group membership was based on patrilineality. Women originated from a larger mating network and moved to join the men, with whom they were buried. Finally, the oldest brother likely held a higher social position, which was expressed in terms of fertility.
This paper presents the results of plant macro-remain and charcoal analyses from a fortified settlement of the Sintashta archaeological culture in the southern Trans-Urals, Russia. The work was ...carried out within the scope of a German/Russian research project and represents the first systematic studies on Bronze Age plant material in the region. Previous archaeological and archaeozoological investigations have revealed that the Sintashta economy was mainly based on livestock herding of cattle, small cattle and horses. There is additional evidence for fishing as well as some copper metallurgy, while the role of agriculture is still being discussed. Archaeobotanical studies therefore focused on the question whether the Bronze Age settlers cultivated, processed or stored crop plants. All cultural layers and important settlement features were systematically sampled, wet-sieved and subjected to plant macro-remain analysis. Anthracological (charcoal) samples were taken from burnt structures and charcoal concentrations. As no evidence for either cultivated plants or agricultural practices was found in the settlement, it can be concluded that farming was not practised at Kamennyi Ambar, and that the Sintashta economy was exclusively based on animal husbandry and fishing in that steppe region. The charred plant remains found in the settlement represent a broad spectrum of wild plants which can be attributed to vegetation units like small woodlands, steppe, ruderal steppe, meadow steppe and the riparian zone. As supported by palynological studies, Bronze Age vegetation patterns are largely comparable with those of the modern steppe environment. Since some of the recorded taxa have the potential to serve as food, fodder or for craft purposes, the use of wild plants at Kamennyi Ambar must be considered. The charcoal analysis reveals the dominance of Pinus sylvestris and Betula sp., representing a typical tree taxa spectrum from the steppe region during the Bronze Age as well as present times. It can be concluded that wood was readily available for construction material and fuel.
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