Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate neurological tests and expected results in inland bearded dragons (
Pogona vitticeps
) and generate recommendations for bearded dragon–specific neurological ...examination.
ANIMALS
26 healthy adult inland bearded dragons.
PROCEDURES
A complete neurological examination utilizing tests described in both mammals and reptiles was performed on each lizard, and test feasibility and outcome were recorded.
RESULTS
Tests with poor feasibility included oculocardiac reflex (successfully completed in 62% 16/26 of animals) and voluntary ambulation and swallowing by use of a food item (0% 0/26 of animals). Tests with outcomes considered abnormal in mammals but attributable to normal bearded dragon behavior included head position (head tilt present in 12% 3/26) and head movement (head bob present in 4% 1/26). Many tests had absent or inconsistent outcomes, including menace response (present in 19% 5/26), proprioceptive positioning (present in 4% 1/26 in the thoracic limbs and 0% 0/26 in the pelvic limbs), vent reflex (present in 27% 7/26), and myotatic reflexes (biceps present in 8% 2/26; patellar, gastrocnemius, and triceps present in 0% 0/26). Extensor postural thrust was absent in all successfully tested animals, but a novel reflex termed the caudal thoracic extensor reflex was noted instead in all observed animals (100% 21/21).
CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Tests with poor feasibility or inconsistent outcomes should have low priority or be excluded from neurological examinations of inland bearded dragons. Normal behaviors should be considered for head position and movement. A bearded dragon–specific neurological examination protocol derived from these findings is described and recommended in order to decrease stress and improve neurolocalization.
To describe the clinical features, histopathologic lesions, and outcome of cardiovascular disease in central bearded dragons.
54 bearded dragons.
Retrospective evaluation of captive bearded dragons ...with antemortem imaging or postmortem diagnosis of cardiovascular disease from 2007 to 2022 from 6 hospitals.
The total prevalence of cardiovascular disease was 3.3% (54/1,655). Physical examination findings were available in 46 cases with change in mentation being the most common finding (n = 28/46 60.9%), followed by dehydration (17/46 37%), palpable coelomic mass (13/46 28.3%), dyspnea (10/46 21.7%), and sunken eyes (10/46 21.7%). Doppler auscultation revealed an arrhythmia in 5/34 (14.7%) animals. Diagnostic imaging was only performed on 21 animals, and 10 (47.6%) had cardiovascular abnormalities described. In total, 84 cardiovascular diagnoses were found in 54 animals. The most common diagnosis was myocarditis (n = 14) followed by aneurysms (11), pericardial effusion (9), atherosclerosis (7), epicarditis (7), and myocardial degeneration/necrosis (7). Overall, 62 causes of death were identified in 52 cases, with cardiovascular disease being the most common (n = 18/52 34.5%). Only 3/54 animals were diagnosed with congestive heart failure. Animals with aneurysms were more likely to die to due cardiovascular disease compared to other types of cardiovascular diagnoses (OR, 43.75; 95% CI, 4.88 to 392.65; P < .001).
Diagnosis of cardiovascular disease in bearded dragons is challenging given the inconsistent clinical presentation; however, it should remain a differential in animals with nonspecific signs of illness. Antemortem diagnostics are recommended in suspected cases, including diagnostic imaging. Of the cardiovascular diseases described, aneurysms most often contributed to clinical demise.
A 9-y-old, spayed female rabbit was presented for evaluation of hypoglycemia and lateral recumbency. The patient was hypothermic and had diffuse muscle wasting; weight loss since a previous visit was ...also noted. Hematologic abnormalities included progressive nonregenerative anemia and severe heteropenia. Evaluation of a bone marrow aspirate sample revealed active hematopoiesis with abundant pink matrix. The matrix material stained positively with periodic acid–Schiff and alcian blue, and a diagnosis of gelatinous transformation of the bone marrow (GTBM, serous atrophy of fat) was made. Although its precise prevalence remains to be determined, GTBM should be suspected in rabbits with persistent cytopenias following prolonged starvation or gastrointestinal disease.
Four green iguanas (
) and one blue iguana (
) from five facilities were diagnosed with sodium urate cholelithiasis. One case was diagnosed antemortem via ultrasonography, and the iguana underwent a ...choledochotomy for treatment. The other four cases were identified at necropsy. Pathologic hepatic and biliary changes were present in four of the five cases at necropsy. Histologically, four iguanas had hepatic fibrosis, three had bile duct hyperplasia, and one had cholangiohepatitis and pancreaticocholedochitis. Two iguanas had pathologic renal changes. This is the first report of sodium urate cholelithiasis in reptiles. This case series highlights the potential significant clinical disease caused by sodium urate cholelithiasis and the importance of biliary system evaluation. Further investigation is recommended to explore the pathogenesis of reptilian sodium urate cholelith formation.
A 30-year-old female intact Malayan wreathed hornbill (
) was presented for presumed nesting behavior, progressive anorexia, dropping food, and coelomic distension. A complete blood count and plasma ...biochemistry analysis revealed marked inflammation, severe electrolyte abnormalities, elevated liver enzyme activities and bile acids, and normal plasma iron concentrations. Radiographic images of the patient were consistent with hepatomegaly and loss of serosal detail in the coelomic cavity. A computed tomography study revealed multiple poorly contrast-enhancing hepatic nodules, hepatoperitoneal and intestinal peritoneal fluid and gas, and a contrast-enhancing mass in the ventral coelom. Cytologic samples of the liver were consistent with necrosis, and the coelomic effusion was characterized as an aseptic suppurative exudate. An exploratory coeliotomy was performed and biopsy samples of the liver and a mesenteric mass were histologically interpreted as a tubular carcinoma with metastasis to the liver and secondary portal hepatitis. Euthanasia was elected and multiple liver masses and a peripancreatic mass were identified on necropsy. Histopathological samples collected during the postmortem gross examination showed multiple well-demarcated hepatic masses consisting of neoplastic hepatocytes encapsulated by fibrous tissue and proliferation of dysplastic biliary ductules, as well as a peripancreatic heterophilic granuloma with adjacent pancreatic atrophy and ductular proliferation. Ultimately, the patient was diagnosed with multifocal hepatocellular carcinoma and chronic granulomatous and heterophilic pancreatitis, steatitis, and coelomitis with intralesional bacteria. Malignant hepatobiliary neoplasia has been poorly documented in hornbills despite high anecdotal incidence in this and other avian species predisposed to iron storage disease. This report illustrates clinical and pathological information, including advanced imaging, which could aid in the diagnosis of this condition in hornbills and other avian species.
Thei-STAT® portable clinical analyzer (PCA) provides patient-side results for hematologic, biochemical, and blood gas values when immediate results are desired. This analyzer is commonly used in ...nondomestic animals; however, validation of this method in comparison with traditional benchtop methods should be performed for each species. In this study, the i-STAT PCA was compared with the Radiometer ABL 800 Flex benchtop analyzer using 24 heparinized whole blood samples obtained from healthy E. maximus. In addition, the effect of sample storage was evaluated on the i-STAT PCA. Analytes evaluated were hydrogen ion concentration (pH), glucose, potassium (K+), sodium (Na+), bicarbonate (HCO3−), total carbon dioxide (TCO2), partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2), and ionized calcium (iCa2+). Statistical analysis using correlation coefficients, Passing-Bablok regression analysis, and Bland-Altman plots found good agreement between results from samples run immediately after phlebotomy and 4 hr postsampling on the i-STAT PCA with the exception of K+, which is known to change with sample storage. Comparison of the results from the two analyzers at 4 hr postsampling found very strong or strong correlation in all values except K+, with statistically significant bias in all values except glucose and PCO2. Despite bias, mean differences assessed via Bland-Altman plots were clinically acceptable for all analytes excluding K+. Within the reference range for iCa2+, the iCa2+ values obtained by the i-STAT PCA and Radiometer ABL 800 Flex were close in value, however in light of the constant and proportionate biases detected, overestimation at higher values and underestimation at lower values of iCa2+ by the i-STAT PCA would be of potential concern. This study supports the use of the i-STAT PCA for the evaluation of these analytes, with the exception of K+, in the Asian elephant.
Ferret systemic coronaviral disease (FSCD) is a well-established cause of mortality in domestic ferrets. We describe herein novel findings in a case of FSCD that was diagnosed and medically managed ...following virus detection by immunohistochemical (IHC) staining of surgical biopsy samples. Hematologic changes in this ferret suggested spread of the virus to the bone marrow, which was confirmed by IHC staining of a postmortem sample. Genotyping of the virus indicated that the virus grouped with alphacoronaviruses and was most closely related to ferret enteric coronavirus (FRECV) MSU-2. Our clinical case demonstrates that a FRECV MSU-2–like ferret coronavirus associated previously with the enteric pathotype may cause systemic disease, including bone marrow involvement causing persistent pancytopenia.
A 10‐year‐old male castrated Holland Lop rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) was presented for severe ulcerative stromal keratitis of the right eye and a luxated hypermature cataract and glaucoma of the ...left eye. Staged bilateral enucleation was elected. A LigaSure™ electrosurgical bipolar vessel‐sealing device was used as a means to minimize intraoperative and post‐operative hemorrhage, especially that associated with the orbital venous plexus. The LigaSure™ was used to ligate and transect all extraocular muscles, the optic nerve bundle, and the base of the third eyelid with no complications encountered. Overall, the LigaSure™ was easy to use, resulted in minimal hemorrhage, and reduced surgery time. This is the first report of the use of a LigaSure™ to aid in the enucleation of a rabbit. Although only positive results were achieved as an alternative to conventional methodologies, its use in clinical practice should be that of caution until a larger study evaluating the long‐term results is performed.
To evaluate neurological tests and expected results in inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) and generate recommendations for bearded dragon-specific neurological examination.
26 healthy adult ...inland bearded dragons.
A complete neurological examination utilizing tests described in both mammals and reptiles was performed on each lizard, and test feasibility and outcome were recorded.
Tests with poor feasibility included oculocardiac reflex (successfully completed in 62% 16/26 of animals) and voluntary ambulation and swallowing by use of a food item (0% 0/26 of animals). Tests with outcomes considered abnormal in mammals but attributable to normal bearded dragon behavior included head position (head tilt present in 12% 3/26) and head movement (head bob present in 4% 1/26). Many tests had absent or inconsistent outcomes, including menace response (present in 19% 5/26), proprioceptive positioning (present in 4% 1/26 in the thoracic limbs and 0% 0/26 in the pelvic limbs), vent reflex (present in 27% 7/26), and myotatic reflexes (biceps present in 8% 2/26; patellar, gastrocnemius, and triceps present in 0% 0/26). Extensor postural thrust was absent in all successfully tested animals, but a novel reflex termed the caudal thoracic extensor reflex was noted instead in all observed animals (100% 21/21).
Tests with poor feasibility or inconsistent outcomes should have low priority or be excluded from neurological examinations of inland bearded dragons. Normal behaviors should be considered for head position and movement. A bearded dragon-specific neurological examination protocol derived from these findings is described and recommended in order to decrease stress and improve neurolocalization.
A 6-year-old female spayed domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) was evaluated for stranguria and pollakiuria. A large calculus was presumed to be in the urethra based on radiographic images; ...however, the rabbit retained the ability to urinate. An ultrasound examination was performed, which revealed a 0.8 × 0.6 × 0.8cm3, round, hyperechoic foci with strong acoustic shadowing in the pelvic region. A small amount of anechoic urine was present in the urinary bladder and the urethra was normal, extending from the urinary bladder to pelvis. It could not be determined ultrasonographically whether the structure of interest was in the urethra or vagina. Based on these findings, vaginoscopy was performed under general anesthesia, which confirmed the calculus was present in the proximal vagina rather than the urethra. The calculus was removed endoscopically using a retrieval basket. Calculi within the vagina should be considered as a differential diagnosis for female rabbits presenting with stranguria and pollakiuria, especially if clinical, radiographic and ultrasonographic findings are not consistent with urinary obstruction. Vaginoscopy is a rapid, noninvasive tool for diagnosis and removal of vaginal calculi.
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