Indoor dust is an important exposure route to anthropogenic chemicals used in consumer products. Plasticizers are common product additives and can easily leach out of the product and partition to ...dust. Investigations of plasticizers typically focus on a subset of phthalate esters (PEs), but there are many more PEs in use, and alternative plasticizers (APs) are seeing greater use after recognition of adverse health effects of PEs. In this study we use full scan high resolution mass spectrometry for targeted and suspect screening of PEs and APs in house dust and to assess the potential risk of human exposure. House dust samples from Eastern Slovakia were investigated and concentrations of ∑12PEs and ∑5APs ranged 12–2765 μg/g and 45–13,260 μg/g, respectively. APs were at similar levels to PEs, indicating common usage of these compounds in products in homes.
Evaluation of individual compound toxicity combined with human intake via dust ingestion suggested PEs are of lower priority compared to semivolatile organic compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls due to their lower toxicity. However, cumulative risk assessment (CRA) is a more appropriate evaluation of risk, considering the presences of many PEs in dust and their similar toxic mode of action. CRA based on median toxicity reference values (TRVs) suggested acceptable risks for dust ingestion, however, the wide range of literature-derived TRVs is a large uncertainty, especially for the APs. Use of newer TRVs suggest risk from dust ingestion alone, i.e. not even considering diet, inhalation, and dermal contact. Additionally, screening of full-scan instrumental spectra identified a further 40 suspect PE compounds, suggesting the CRA based on the 12 target PEs underestimates the risk.
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•DEHP & DEHT dominated phthalate & alternative plasticizer dust levels, respectively.•Acceptable risks estimated for anti-androgenic effects of PEs via dust ingestion.•Uncertainty in toxicity data and other exposure routes may alter the risk.•Non-target analysis suggests >50 PEs in dust; many are ignored in risk assessment.
Semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) emitted from consumer products, building materials, and indoor and outdoor activities can be highly persistent in indoor environments. Human exposure to and ...environmental contamination with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) was previously reported in a region near a former PCB production facility in Slovakia. However, we found that the indoor residential PCB levels did not correlate with the distance from the facility. Rather, indoor levels in this region and those reported in the literature were related to the historic PCB use on a national scale and the inferred presence of primary sources of PCBs in the homes. Other SVOCs had levels linked with either the activities in the home, e.g., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with wood heating; or outdoor activities, e.g., organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) with agricultural land use and building age. We propose a classification framework to prioritize SVOCs for monitoring in indoor environments and to evaluate risks from indoor SVOC exposures. Application of this framework to 88 measured SVOCs identified several PCB congeners (CB-11, -28, -52), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), benzo(a)pyrene, and γ-HCH as priority compounds based on high exposure and toxicity assessed by means of toxicity reference values (TRVs). Application of the framework to many emerging compounds such as novel flame retardants was not possible because of either no or outdated TRVs. Concurrent identification of seven SVOC groups in indoor environments provided information on their comparative levels and distributions, their sources, and informed our assessment of associated risks.
•Indoor residential PCB levels do not correlate with the distance from PCB factory.•Indoor PAH levels are linked with use of wood heating in home.•Indoor OCP levels are linked with building age and agricultural land use.•PCBs, HCB, BAP and γ-HCH are priority compounds based on high exposure and toxicity.
In this study, 10 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and 19 alternative halogenated flame retardants (AFRs) were determined in >450 human milk samples across three European countries, ...representing northern, western and eastern Europe. This study provides first insights into the occurrence of selected AFRs in mother milk samples and compares them among three European countries. Sums of median concentrations of the most frequently detected PBDEs were 2.16, 0.88 and 0.45ngg−1 lipid weight (lw) in Norway, the Netherlands and Slovakia, respectively. The sum of the concentrations of AFRs ranged from 0.14 to 0.25ngg−1lw in all countries, which was 2 to 15 times less compared to Σ7PBDEs. The Penta-BDE replacement, bis(2-ethylhexyl) tetrabromophthalate, BEH-TEBP, was present at the greatest concentrations of any of the AFRs and in some samples exceeded concentrations of BDE 47 and BDE 153. Four AFRs including bromobenzenes (hexabromobenzene, pentabromobenzene, pentabromotoluene) and another Penta-BDE replacement (2-ethylhexyl-2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate, EH-TBB) were detected in >42% of all human milk samples. Because of the potential developmental neurotoxicity of the halogenated flame retardants, infant dietary intakes via breastfeeding were estimated; in four cases the intakes of BDE 47 exceeded the reference dose indicating that the present concentrations may pose a risk for children.
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•Legacy and alternative flame retardants were determined in human milk in Europe.•The median sum of PBDEs was 2–15 times higher than the median of alternative FRs.•BEH-TEBP was present at high concentrations in milk samples.•Uptake with milk was found to be the main exposure source for infants.
The aim of our work was to find associations between urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations and occupation, consumer practices and body composition. We divided our cohort (
n
= 129) into ...occupationally exposed subjects, community service workers (group A;
n
= 45) and workers from plastic industry (group B;
n
= 35) and group of general population (control group C,
n
= 49). To estimate levels of five phthalate metabolites, we used high-performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry analysis. We found in plastic industry workers compared to community service workers and subjects of the control group significantly higher urinary concentration mono (2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP), mono (2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP), mono (2-etylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), sum di-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (DEHP), mono-iso-butyl phthalate (MiBP) and mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP). We identified by multivariate analysis of covariance inverse relationship between MEHP and body parameters as waist-to-height ratio, body mass index, waist-to-hip ratio, hip circumference and waist circumference among females, whereas in males, no significant association was found. Results of our study show, despite of variability in terms of occupational exposure to phthalates, that plastic manufactory represents a higher occupational risk in comparison with waste management. The differences in anthropometric parameters between the two occupationally exposed groups and the general population are suggesting a detrimental effect of occupational exposure on body weight homeostasis.
Despite increasing attention to the occupational risk of firefighters, little is known about phthalate exposure. In our study, we detected mono-isobutyl phthalate (MiBP), mono-n-buthyl phthalate ...(MnBP), mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (5OH-MEHP), mono(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (5cx-MECPP), and mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (5oxo-MEHP) in each urine sample. We detected positive association between MnBP, MiBP, mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP), 5OH-MEHP, 5oxo-MEHP, 5cx-MECPP, mono-isononyl phthalate (MiNP), the sum of low (∑LMWP) and high molecular-weight phthalates (∑HMWP). and Tiffeneau-Pinelli index (the ratio of forced expiratory volume in 1/ forced vital capacity; FEV
/FVC;
= 0.001-0.04) and the percent predicted value (%PV) of FEV
/FVC (
= 0.005-0.05) and negative association between MiNP and peak expiratory flow (PEF; r = -0.31;
= 0.084). We observed a positive association between phthalate metabolites (MnBP, 5OH-MEHP, 5oxo-MEHP, 5cx-MECPP, 2cx-MMHP, ∑LMWP, and ∑HMWP) and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR;
= 0.003-0.09) and body shape index (ABSI;
= 0.039-0.09) and a negative association between MnBP, ∑LMWP, and hip circumference (
= 0.005-0.02). We detected association between concentrations of 5OH-MEHP, 5cx-MECPP, 5oxo-MEHP, and MnBP and consumption of food heating in plastic material in microwave (
= 0.02-0.04) and between probands who ate margarines and vegetable fat packed in plastic containers and concentration of MMP (
= 0.03). Results of multivariate regression indicated that exposure to phthalates could be linked with changing body structure, which subsequently affects values of pulmonary functions in firefighters.
Characterization of PCB exposure sources for vulnerable population groups is essential to minimize the health effects of PCB exposure. At the same time, it is important to consolidate the knowledge ...on threshold intakes of PCBs for infants and toddlers to prevent health effects. We estimated total PCB concentrations from birth to 2 years of age in children from Slovak and Czech populations, which continue to have high PCB concentrations in breast milk. Using a pharmacokinetic (PK) model, we characterized dominant PCB exposure sources and estimated new threshold estimated daily intakes (TEDI) (above which adverse effects cannot be excluded) for postnatal PCB exposure in infants and toddlers. In the PK model, concentrations of seven indicator PCBs in breast milk and cord blood samples from 291 mother-child pairs from the Slovak birth cohort, and 396 breast milk samples from Czech mothers we used, together with their physiological characteristics and PCB concentrations from other exposure sources (food, dust, air). The estimated total PCB concentrations in children's blood at different ages were compared with threshold PCB concentrations of 500, 700 and 1000 ng·glipid−1 in serum proposed by the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) and the German Environment Agency (UBA), above which possible adverse health effects may be expected. We estimated that up to 20.6% of Slovak children and up to 45.7% of Czech children at two years of age exceeded the threshold value of 700 ng·glipid−1 in blood. Mean TEDIs leading to values of 500 ng·glipid−1 in blood for children up to two years ranged between 110 and 220 ng·kg−1·bw·day−1, varying according to breastfeeding duration. Breast milk and prenatal exposure contributed to 71%–85% of PCBs exposure at two years of age. In contrast, the contributions of PCBs from dust and indoor air were negligible.
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•We estimated the new threshold daily intakes (TEDI) of PCBs for breastfed children.•TEDI reflect threshold PCB concentrations in blood for adverse health effects.•The contribution of exposure PCB sources for infants and toddler was calculated.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are thought to cause numerous adverse health effects, but their impact on estrogen signaling is still not fully understood. In the present study, we used the ER-CALUX ...bioassay to determine estrogenic/antiestrogenic activities of the prevalent PCB congeners and PCB mixtures isolated from human male serum. The samples were collected from residents of an area with an extensive environmental contamination from a former PCB production site as well as from a neighboring background region in eastern Slovakia. We found that the lower-chlorinated PCBs were estrogenic, whereas the prevalent higher-chlorinated PCB congeners 138, 153, 170, 180, 187, 194, 199, and 203, as well as major PCB metabolites, behaved as antiestrogens. Coplanar PCBs had no direct effect on estrogen receptor (ER) activation in this in vitro model. In human male serum samples, high levels of PCBs were associated with a decreased ER-mediated activity and an increased dioxin-like activity, as determined by the DR-CALUX assay. 17β-Estradiol ( E2) was responsible for a major part of estrogenic activity identified in total serum extracts. Significant negative correlations were found between dioxin-like activity, as well as mRNA levels of cytochromes P450 1A1 and 1B1 in lymphocytes, and total estrogenic activity. For sample fractions containing only persistent organic pollutants (POPs), the increased frequency of antiestrogenic samples was associated with a higher sum of PCBs. This suggests that the prevalent nondioxin-like PCBs were responsible for the weak antiestrogenic activity of some POPs fractions. Our data also suggest that it might be important to pay attention to direct effects of PCBs on steroid hormone levels in heavily exposed subjects.
Evidence of associations of pre- and postnatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) with cognitive development beyond early childhood is inconsistent. A previous report from this cohort ...observed adverse associations between early life PCB exposures and infant Bayley scores at age 16 months. The present study examines pre- and postnatal PCB exposures in relation to both behavior and cognitive development at age 45 months. Participants were 472 mother-child pairs residing in an area of eastern Slovakia characterized by environmental contamination with PCBs, which resulted in elevated blood serum concentrations. PCB-153 and PCB-118 concentrations were measured in maternal and in infant 6-, 16-, and 45-month serum samples. At age 45 months, children were administered five subtests of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-III), and mothers completed the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Negative binomial and multiple linear regressions were used to estimate PCB—CBCL and PCB—WPPSI-III subtest score associations, respectively. Pre- and postnatal levels of PCB-153 and PCB-118 were not associated with cognitive performance on the WPPSI-III in this cohort. There was some suggestion that higher postnatal PCB concentrations were associated with more sleep problems and feelings of depression and anxiousness.
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•Prenatal PCB-associated cognitive deficits are generally well-documented.•There is mixed evidence as to whether these effects persist into childhood.•This association was examined in a cohort with varied PCB exposures.•Evidence of an adverse association was not observed in this study.
We evaluated concentrations of 15 PCB congeners in blood serum of 2047 adults, 431 8–9-year old children and 1134 mother-child pairs born in 2001–2003. These subjects were long-standing residents ...living up to 70 km (to the north) and up to 50 km (to the south) of the former Chemko Strážske PCB production facility in the Michalovce district of Slovakia. We plotted serum concentration against distance from the plant both with and without consideration of the direction of their homes from the site. The decrease in exposure with distance could be described by an exponential function which was dependent on direction and climatic parameters. By kriging we created maps depicting predicted isoconcentration contours for sex- and age-adjusted serum concentration of ∑PCBs for the same group of children, adults and mothers. The principle of our risk analysis was to relate serum concentration data, reflecting PCB body burden, using the critical concentrations established by the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES 2010) as thresholds below which the probability of effects on health is regarded as negligible. We conclude that 10 years ago, around 200,000 residents were at risk in this densely populated area. Exposure has since decreased but the mechanism for this has not yet been studied.
Hearing loss is an injury that can develop over time, and people may not even be aware of it until it becomes a severe disability. Ototoxicants are substances that may damage the inner ear by either ...affecting the structures in the ear itself or by affecting the nervous system. We have examined the possibility that ototoxicants may present a health hazard in association with environmental exposures, adding to existing knowledge of their proven hazards under medical therapeutic conditions or occupational activities. In addition to the already described human environmental ototoxicants, mainly organochlorines such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) and hexachlorobenzene (HCB), we have examined the ubiquitous chemical stressors phthalates, bisphenol A/S/F/, PFCs, flame retardants (FRs) and cadmium for potential ototoxic properties, both as single substances or as chemical mixtures. Our literature review confirmed that these chemicals may disturb thyroid hormones homeostasis, activate aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), and induce oxidative stress, which in turn may initiate a chain of events resulting in impairment of cochlea and hearing loss. With regard to auditory plasticity, diagnostics of a mixture of effects of ototoxicants, potential interactions of chemical and physical agents with effects on hearing, parallel deterioration of hearing due to chemical exposures and ageing, metabolic diseases or obesity, even using specific methods as brainstem auditory evoked potentials (BAEP) or otoacoustic emissions (OAEs) registration, may be difficult, and establishment of concentration-response relationships problematic. This paper suggests the establishment of a class of environmental oxotoxicants next to the established classes of occupational and drug ototoxicants. This will help to properly manage risks associated with human exposure to chemical stressors with ototoxic properties and adequate regulatory measures.
•We suggest environmental ototoxicants as a potential new class of chemical stressors.•These chemicals contribute to the prevalence of disabling hearing loss in this study population.•The literature search identified established and potentially new environmental ototoxicants.•Environmental exposures to organochlorines associate with cochlear deficits in humans.
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