The movement of micro and macro molecules into and within a cell significantly governs several of their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters, thus regulating the cellular response to ...exogenous and endogenous stimuli. Trafficking of various pharmacological agents and other bioactive molecules throughout and within the cell is necessary for the fidelity of the cells but has been poorly investigated. Novel strategies against cancer and microbial infections need a deeper understanding of membrane as well as subcellular trafficking pathways and essentially regulate several aspects of the initiation and spread of anti-microbial and anti-cancer drug resistance. Furthermore, in order to avail the maximum possible bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy and to restrict the unwanted toxicity of pharmacological bioactives, these sometimes need to be functionalized with targeting ligands to regulate the subcellular trafficking and to enhance the localization. In the recent past the scenario drug targeting has primarily focused on targeting tissue components and cell vicinities, however, it is the membranous and subcellular trafficking system that directs the molecules to plausible locations. The effectiveness of the delivery platforms largely depends on their physicochemical nature, intracellular barriers, and biodistribution of the drugs, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic paradigms. Most subcellular organelles possess some peculiar characteristics by which membranous and subcellular targeting can be manipulated, such as negative transmembrane potential in mitochondria, intraluminal delta pH in a lysosome, and many others. Many specialized methods, which positively promote the subcellular targeting and restrict the off-targeting of the bioactive molecules, exist. Recent advancements in designing the carrier molecules enable the handling of membrane trafficking to facilitate the delivery of active compounds to subcellular localizations. This review aims to cover membrane trafficking pathways which promote the delivery of the active molecule in to the subcellular locations, the associated pathways of the subcellular drug delivery system, and the role of the carrier system in drug delivery techniques.
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Cancer remains the topmost disorder of the mankind and number of cases is unceasingly growing at unprecedented rates. Although the synthetic anti-cancer compounds still hold the ...largest market in the modern treatment of cancer, natural agents have always been tried and tested for potential anti-cancer properties. Thymoquinone (TQ), a monoterpene and main ingredient in the essential oil of Nigella sativa L. has got very eminent rankings in the traditional systems of medicine for its anti-cancer pharmacological properties. In this review we summarized the diverse aspects of TQ including its chemistry, biosynthesis, sources and pharmacological properties with a major concern being attributed to its anti-cancer efficacies. The role of TQ in different aspects involved in the pathogenesis of cancer like inflammation, angiogenesis, apoptosis, cell cycle regulation, proliferation, invasion and migration have been described. The mechanism of action of TQ in different cancer types has been briefly accounted. Other safety and toxicological aspects and some combination therapies involving TQ have also been touched. A detailed literature search was carried out using various online search engines like google scholar and pubmed regarding the available research and review accounts on thymoquinone upto may 2019. All the articles reporting significant addition to the activities of thymoquinone were selected. Additional information was acquired from ethno botanical literature focusing on thymoquinone. The compound has been the centre of attention for a long time period and researched regularly in quite considerable numbers for its various physicochemical, medicinal, biological and pharmacological perspectives. Thymoquinone is studied for various chemical and pharmacological activities and demonstrated promising anti-cancer potential. The reviewed reports confirmed the strong anti-cancer efficacy of thymoquinone. Further in-vitro and in-vivo research is strongly warranted regarding the complete exploration of thymoquinone in ethnopharmacological context.
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have always provided outstanding therapeutic arsenal in the treatment of cancer, be it hematological malignancies or solid tumors. Monoclonal antibodies mediated ...targeting of cancer genes in general and tumor-suppressor genes, in particular, have appreciably allowed the possibilities of trafficking these antibodies to specific tumor mechanisms and aim for the pin-point maneuvered tumor treatment strategies. The conventional cancer treatment options are associated with enormous limitations like drug resistance, acute and pan-toxic side effects and collateral damage to other unrelated cells and organs. Therefore, monoclonal antibody-mediated treatments have some special advantages of specific targeting of cancer-related genes and minimizing the off-target side effects. A large number of monoclonal antibody-mediated treatment regimen viz. use of immunoconjugates, clinically targeting TGFβ with pan-TGFβ monoclonal antibodies, p53 by its monoclonal antibodies and EGFRtargeted monoclonal antibodies, etc. have been observed in the recent past. In this review, the authors have discussed some of the significant advances in the context of targeting tumor suppressor genes with monoclonal antibodies. Approximately 250 articles were scanned from research databases like PubMed central, Europe PubMed Central and google scholar up to the date of inception, and relevant reports on monoclonal antibody-mediated targeting of cancer genes were selected. mAb mediated targeting of tumor suppressor genes is a recent grey paradigm, which has not been explored up to its maximum potential. Therefore, this review will be of appreciable significance that it will boost further in-depth understanding of various aspects of mAb arbitrated cancer targeting and will warrant and promote further rigorous research initiatives in this regard. The authors expect that this review will acquaint the readers with the current status regarding the recent progress in the domain of mAbs and their employability and targetability towards tumor suppressor genes in anti-cancer therapeutics.
Inflammation plays an important role in the development of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). NR4A1 is an anti-inflammatory orphan nuclear receptor involved in protection from inflammatory stimuli in RA. In ...this study we have explored the anti-inflammatory potential of the FDA-approved drug 9-aminoacridine (9AA) and the natural compound caffeic acid (CA) conjugated to nanomicelles for the treatment of RA. We have synthesized methoxy polyethylene glycol polycaprolactone block copolymer (mPEG-b-PCL) by ring opening polymerization of ε-caprolactone. Then, we conjugated the hydrophilic caffeic acid (CA) with mPEG-b-PCL micelles via Steglich esterification and incorporated the 9AA drug. These nanomicelles were formulated by the solvent evaporation method with a size distribution around 190 nm and showed maximum drug loading capacity along with sustained drug release behavior. Furthermore, we tested the therapeutic potential of the formulated 9AA-encapsulated CA-conjugated nanomicelles (9AA-NMs) against an experimental RA model. We observed promising results which showed alleviation of arthritic symptoms by reducing inflammation, joint damage, bone erosion, and swelling. Further, collagen destruction was significantly reduced in articular cartilage, as shown by safranin-O and toluidine blue staining. The protective mechanism might be due to the simultaneous inhibition of NF-κB by 9AA and CA, whereas the activation of NR4A1 by 9AA leads to the suppression of HIF-1α. This combined therapeutic effect of 9AA and CA has enhanced the therapeutic efficacy of 9AA-NM and markedly reduced the severity of inflammatory arthritis. Unlike existing drugs for pain management and with limited efficacy, 9AA-NM exerted a disease-relevant activation/blockade that alleviated inflammation and exhibited marked therapeutic efficacy against RA.
Administration of nanomaterials based medicinal and drug carrier systems into systemic circulation brings about interaction of blood components e.g. albumin and globulin proteins with these ...nanosystems. These blood or serum proteins either get loosely attached over these nanocarriers and form soft protein corona or are tightly adsorbed over nanoparticles and hard protein corona formation occurs. Formation of protein corona has significant implications over a wide array of physicochemical and medicinal attributes. Almost all pharmacological, toxicological and carrier characteristics of nanoparticles get prominently touched by the protein corona formation. It is this interaction of nanoparticle protein corona that decides and influences fate of nanomaterials-based systems. In this article, authors reviewed several diverse aspects of protein corona formation and its implications on various possible outcomes in vivo and in vitro. A brief description regarding formation and types of protein corona has been included along with mechanisms and pharmacokinetic, pharmacological behavior and toxicological profiles of nanoparticles has been described. Finally, significance of protein corona in context of its in vivo and in vitro behavior, involvement of biomolecules at nanoparticle plasma interface and other interfaces and effects of protein corona on biocompatibility characteristics have also been touched upon.
•Nanotechnology brought revolutionary changes in pharmaceutical sciences specifically drug delivery systems in recent decades.•Serum proteins play a significant role in the formation of protein corona over nanoparticles.•Protein corona provides identity to nanoparticles and controls overall fate in biological system.•Hard and soft corona formation is equilibrium process and both are having different composition.•Strategies for protein corona modulation affect pharmacological efficacies of nanomedicinal drug delivery systems.
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is chronic inflammatory disorder mainly affects the lining of articular cartilage of synovial joints characterized by severe inflammation and joint damage. The expression of ...proteolytic enzymes like MMP-2 and Neutrophil Elastase (NE) worsens the RA condition. To address this concern, we have synthesized dual enzyme targeted chlorotoxin conjugated nanomicelles loaded with sivelestat as broad spectrum treatment for RA.
Conjugation of the chlorotoxin over nanomicelle and incorporation of sivelestat in nanomicelle provide it dual targeting potential. The sivelestat loaded nanomicelle (SLM) evaluated for the drug release and in-vitro cytocompatibility. Further, investigated its in-vivo anti-arthritic potential on collagen-induced arthritis in wistar rats.
The microscopic observation of SLM showed spherical ball like appearance with size ranging from 190 to 230 nm. SLM showed good drug loading and encapsulation efficiency along with no cytotoxicity against healthy cell lines. In-vivo therapeutic assessment on collagen induced arthritis rat model showed potential chondroprotection. The microscopic visualization of articular cartilage by staining showed that it restores the cartilage integrity and lowers the expression of pro-inflammatory enzymes showed by Immunohistochemistry and Immunofluorescence. We observed that, it restrain the mediators of synovial inflammation by simultaneous inhibition of the proteolytic enzymes involved in swelling, cartilage destruction and joint damage which provides strong chondroprotection.
We report that significant alleviation of inflammation and inhibition of proteolytic enzymes together might provide enhanced potential for the treatment and management of RA.
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Ischemia–reperfusion (I/R) injury is a disease process that affects several vital organs. There is widespread agreement that the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway plays a crucial role in the development of ...I/R injury. We have developed transferrin-conjugated, pH-responsive nanomicelles for the entrapment of MCC950 drug. These nanomicelles specifically bind to the transferrin receptor 1 (TFR1) expressed on the cells of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and thus help the cargo to cross the BBB. Furthermore, the therapeutic potential of nanomicelles was assessed using in vitro, in ovo, and in vivo models of I/R injury. Nanomicelles were injected into the common carotid artery (CCA) of a middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rat model to achieve maximum accretion of nanomicelles into the brain as blood flows toward the brain in the CCA. The current study reveals that the treatment with nanomicelles significantly alleviates the levels of NLRP3 inflammasome biomarkers which were found to be increased in oxygen–glucose deprivation (OGD)-treated SH-SY5Y cells, the I/R-damaged right vitelline artery (RVA) of chick embryos, and the MCAO rat model. The supplementation with nanomicelles significantly enhanced the overall survival of MCAO rats. Overall, nanomicelles exerted therapeutic effects against I/R injury, which might be due to the suppression of the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome.
Functionalized magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have attracted particular interest as potential drug delivery carriers as they offer dual advantage of delivering drugs to the target site complemented ...with magnetic hyperthermia-mediated therapy. Hyperbranched polymer-functionalized MNPs have the potential to perform a dual role of killing cancer cells by hyperthermia (by magnetite core) with apoptosis (by loaded niclosamide). These are formed by the co-precipitation of iron salts followed by aminocellulose grafting, branch growth, and PEGylation. NP formation was investigated by determining particle size, zeta potential, and microscopic (transmission electron microscopy, field-emission scanning electron microscopy, and atomic force microscopy) studies. Results showed that these nanocarriers were 107 ± 57 nm in size with a zeta potential of −18 mV and exist as NPs. Drug loading and encapsulation efficiency were calculated as 15.28 ± 2.72 and 76.41 ± 1.84%, respectively, using UV–vis spectroscopy. NPs were internalized into HCT116 cells as investigated using confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. Blank NPs at the dose of 200 μg/mL were found to be cytocompatible using hTERT cells and hemocompatible. The cell viability study suggested that niclosamide-loaded functionalized magnetic nanoparticles (NFMNPs) were more effective (7 times) than free niclosamide in killing colon cancer cells. Moreover, NFMNPs induced apoptosis in an immunofluorescence study of cleaved caspase-3. Exposure of NFMNPs to an alternating magnetic field (AMF) resulted in a slight increase in the rate of niclosamide release. AMF exposure drastically reduced cell viability due to dual effects of hyperthermia and niclosamide after treatment with NFMNPs. The potentiation of cell death due to dual effects of hyperthermia and niclosamide was further confirmed by Annexin-V/propidium iodide assay using flow cytometry. The results imply that niclosamide delivery through hyperbranched polymer-functionalized MNPs may serve as an effective strategy for the treatment of colorectal cancer.
Ulcerative colitis is a multifactorial disease of the gastrointestinal tract which is caused due to chronic inflammation in the colon; it usually starts from the lower end of the colon and may spread ...to other portions of the large intestine, if left unmanaged. Budesonide (BUD) is a synthetically available second-generation corticosteroidal drug with potent local anti-inflammatory activity. The pharmacokinetic properties, such as extensive first-pass metabolism and quite limited bioavailability, reduce its therapeutic efficacy. To overcome the limitations, nanosized micelles were developed in this study by conjugating stearic acid with caffeic acid to make an amphiphilic compound. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the pharmacological potential of BUD-loaded micelles in a mouse model of dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis. Micelles were formulated by the solvent evaporation method, and their physicochemical characterizations show their spherical shape under microscopic techniques like atomic force microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. The in vitro release experiment shows sustained release behavior in physiological media. These micelles show cytocompatible behavior against hTERT-BJ cells up to 500 μg/mL dose, evidenced by more than 85% viable cells. BUD-loaded micelles successfully normalized the disease activity index and physical observation of colon length. The treatment with BUD-loaded micelles alleviates the colitis severity as analyzed in histopathology and efficiently, overcoming the disease severity via downregulation of various related cytokines (MPO, NO, and TNF-α) and inflammatory enzymes such as COX-2 and iNOS. Results of the study suggest that BUD-loaded nano-sized micelles effectively attenuate the disease conditions in colitis.
Nanotechnology has been proven to be effective several times in the treatment of various diseases. Nanomedicine is a growing field of research for the development of novel drug delivery systems. ...Targeting autophagy with the help of nanotechnology based drug delivery might be beneficial over conventional ways. Autophagy is a degenerative process involving multiple steps to recycle essential components of cells, that goes into the senescence phase. It has a prominent role in pathogenesis as well as the homeostasis of cells involved in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and osteoarthritis (OA). The health of chondrocytes is maintained by autophagy and dysregulation of autophagy is a major contributing factor in the death of chondrocytes. The autoimmune response to chondrocytes and synovium is a major trigger that ultimately leads to apoptosis of cells and then autophagy. Chondrocytes are stimulated by IL-17, IL-1 and TNF-α to secrete cartilage degrading metalloproteinases. Unhealthy conditions of cartilage reduce the number of chondrocytes and layers of articular cartilage, resulting in severe pain due to the movement of joints involving friction. Autophagy plays a major role in osteoclastogenesis in RA. The death of chondrocytes is a major hallmark of OA progression that involves bone degradation due to the complete removal of the cartilage layer. There are reports entailing that the inhibition of autophagy might be protective and can reduce bone erosion and osteoclast formation. In this review, we discussed the role of autophagy in OA and RA including signaling molecules, current therapies and nanotechnological advancements in treating these diseases.
Nanotechnology has been proven to be effective several times in the treatment of various diseases.
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