The authors investigated the effects of gender, gender role, and type of moral dilemma on moral maturity and moral orientation. Fifty-five female and 55 male university students were given the
...Personal Attributes Questionnaire
(
J. T. Spence & R. L. Helmreich, 1978
),
L. Kohlberg's test of moral judgment, and instructions to discuss a personal and impersonal real-life moral dilemma. Moral stage, moral orientation, and the relation between them varied across dilemmas. Females were more consistent than males in moral stage; males were more consistent in moral orientation. Females made higher stage and more care-based moral judgments than males made on personal real-life dilemmas. The observed variations occurred primarily because males reported more Stage 2, justice-pulling antisocial dilemmas than females, and females reported more Stage 3, care-pulling prosocial dilemmas than males. A more interactional model of moral judgment than the models of L. Kohlberg and C. Gilligan is recommended.
This study investigated the extent to which people interpret real-life moral dilemmas in terms of an internal moral orientation, as Gilligan (1982, 1988) has suggested, or in terms of the content of ...the dilemma, as Wark and Krebs (1996, 1997) have reported. Thirty women and 30 men listed the issues they saw in descriptions of real-life prosocial, antisocial and social pressure types of moral dilemma. Results revealed that Gilligan's model underestimates the influence of dilemma content. Moral dilemmas differed in the extent to which they were viewed in terms of the same issues by different participants. There was relatively little within-person consistency in moral orientation. There were four gender differences. Compared to men, women rated social pressure dilemmas as involving more care-orientated issues, and prosocial dilemmas as more significant. Compared to women, men viewed all dilemmas as involving more justice-based issues, and reported experiencing more antisocial dilemmas.
To evaluate the extent to which the models of moral judgment advanced by Kohlberg (1984) and by Gilligan (1982, 1988) are able to account for real-life moral judgment, we investigated the relation of ...sex and type of moral dilemma to moral stage and moral orientation. Eighty young adult men and women made moral judgments about two hypothetical Kohlberg dilemmas, two real-life antisocial dilemmas, and two real-life prosocial dilemmas. We failed to find any sex differences in moral judgment. Moral stage and moral orientation varied across the three types of dilemma. Kohlberg's dilemmas pulled for justice-oriented Stage 4 moral judgments, real-life prosocial dilemmas pulled for care-oriented Stage 3 moral judgments, and real-life antisocial dilemmas pulled for justice-oriented Stage 2 moral judgments. The content of moral judgments was related to their structure. There was a positive relation between stage of moral judgment on Kohlberg dilemmas and on real-life dilemmas. The implications of these findings for a new, more interactional, model of real-life moral judgment are discussed.
In the context of Kohlberg's (1984) and Gilligan's (1982, 1988) models of moral judgment, three studies investigated the relation of gender and type of moral dilemma to moral judgment. In Study 1, 30 ...male and 30 female participants listed the main issues they saw to be involved in descriptions of real-life dilemmas. The types of issue listed were determined by both the dilemma and within-person factors, but the latter were not gender-related. In Study 2, 15 male and 15 female participants made moral judgments regarding some of the dilemmas. In Study 3, 40 male and 40 female participants made moral judgments about dilemmas on Kohlberg's test and about two antisocial and two prosocial real-life moral dilemmas they had experienced. There were no overall gender differences in moral judgment. Moral judgment varied across dilemmas. A new approach to the study of real-life moral judgement is discussed.
In the context of Kohlberg's and Gilligan's theories of moral development and moral orientation, Study 1 deals with two questions: (a) are there sex or sex-role differences in moral maturity and ...moral orientation, and (b) does the content of dilemmas affect moral maturity or moral orientation independently from or in interaction with sex or sex-role? One hundred and ten undergraduates at a large university responded to a short form of Kohlberg's test, one impersonal and one personal real-life dilemma, and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire. The issue of dilemma content was explored as an explanation for the observed differences: females reported more care-oriented personal real-life conflicts than males. In Study 2, 30 males and 30 females rated exemplars of real-life conflicts from those reported in Study 1. It is suggested that types of dilemma affect moral maturity and moral orientation more than types of people (sex or sex-role), but that males and females differ in the types of personal real-life conflict they report. As the results on dilemma significance only partially explain the sex differences observed, future research aimed at examining the nature of the interaction between sex and type of dilemma is encouraged. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)
Mammographic density and bone mineral density, risk factors for breast cancer and osteoporotic fractures, respectively, are both thought to reflect cumulative exposure to estrogen and are highly ...heritable. We asked if there was overlap between the genes that explain their variances. We studied 63 monozygous and 71 dizygous female twin pairs ages 38 to 71 years (mean, 50 years). Absolute and percent mammographic densities were measured by a computer-assisted method, and bone mineral density was measured at the lumbar spine, femoral neck, and forearm by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. After adjusting for age, height, and weight, the within-person and cross-trait cross-twin correlations between the mammographic density and bone mineral density measures were between -0.09 and 0.16 (SEs, 0.07-0.09) and independent of zygosity (all P > 0.05). We conclude that there is little, if any, overlap between the genetic or environmental determinants of disease risk associated with these traits.
Forty-two male–female couples completed Kohlberg's test of moral development and made moral judgments about the most recent interpersonal moral conflict they had experienced in their everyday lives. ...Participants made lower stage moral judgments about their interpersonal moral conflicts than about the dilemmas on Kohlberg's test. The type of interpersonal moral conflict participants experienced and their role in the conflict were related to the types of moral judgments they made. Participants who reported philosophical conflicts made more mature moral judgments than participants who reported antisocial conflicts, especially if their role in the antisocial conflict was that of a transgressor. Conflicts were most likely to be resolved when partners' moral judgments about their conflict were similar in moral maturity. The implications of these findings for models of moral judgment are discussed.
A double-blind, controlled clinical study was conducted on live, enteric adenovirus vaccines, types 4 (ADV-4) and 7 (ADV-7), in 600 recruits from two camps of the Canadian Armed Forces. Clinical ...symptoms occurred with equal frequency in vaccine and placebo recipients. Serum neutralization assays demonstrated that of the 485 recruits from whom pre-and postimmunization sera were available, 60% and 52% were found before vaccine administration to be seronegative to adenovirus types 4 and 7, respectively. 86% of 188 and 76% of 161 seronegative vaccine recipients showed an antibody response to ADV-4 and ADV-7, respectively. All but one seronegative placebo recipient remained seronegative to virus types 4 and 7. This finding indicates that naturally occurring adenovirus types 4 and 7 infections were not present in the population at the time of the study and transmission of vaccine virus from inoculated recruits to seronegative placebo recipients did not occur. This study confirmed the safety and antigenicity of ADV-4 and ADV-7 in military recruits. Large scale use of these vaccines for Canadian Armed Forces personnel appears to be warranted. Un essai clinique à double insu a été pratiqué avec des vaccins constitués d'adénovirus entériques vivants de types 4 (ADV-4) et 7 (ADV-7), chez 600 recrues sélectionnées dans deux camps des Forces armées canadiennes. Des symptômes cliniques se sont manifestés avec la même fréquence dans le groupe des vaccinés et dans celui des sujets à qui Von avait administré du placebo. Parmi les 485 recrues ayant fait l'objet de prélèvements sanguins avant et après Immunisation, on a démontré par séroneutralisation la séronégativité prévaccinale à regard des adenovirus de type 4 chez 60%, et à l'égard du type 7 chez 52%. Chez 188 vaccinés séronégatifs, 86% ont présenté une réponse immunitaire à l'ADV-4; et chez 161, 76% à l'ADV-7. À une exception près, tous les sujets ayant reçu le placebo sont demeurés séronégatifs à l'égard des virus de types 4 et 7. Ce résultat révèle, d'une part, que la population visée était exempte de toute infection naturelle à adenovirus de types 4 et 7 au moment de l'étude: et que, d'autre part, les virus des vaccins ne se sont pas transmis des recrues inoculées aux sujets séronégatifs ayant reçu le placebo. L'étude confirme donc l'innocuité et l'antigénicité de l'ADV-4 et de l'ADV-7 chez les recrues militaires. On peut en conclure que l'utilisation à grande échelle de ces vaccins chez le personnel des Forces armées canadiennes semble justifiée.
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