Despite widespread evidence of endocannabinoid system involvement in the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders, our understanding remains rudimentary. Here we review studies of the endocannabinoid ...system in humans with psychotic and mood disorders. Postmortem, peripheral, cerebrospinal fluid and in vivo imaging studies provide evidence for the involvement of the endocannabinoid system in psychotic and mood disorders. Psychotic disorders and major depressive disorder exhibit alterations of brain cannabinoid CB1 receptors and peripheral blood endocannabinoids. Further, these changes may be sensitive to treatment status, disease state, and symptom severity. Evidence from psychotic disorder extend to endocannabinoid metabolizing enzymes in the brain and periphery, whereas these lines of evidence remain poorly developed in mood disorders. A paucity of studies examining this system in bipolar disorder represents a notable gap in the literature. Despite a growing body of productive work in this field of research, there is a clear need for investigation beyond the CB1 receptor in order to more fully elucidate the role of the endocannabinoid system in psychotic and mood disorders.
•The endocannabinoid system is altered in psychotic and mood disorders.•Changes in receptors, anandamide, 2-AG and their metabolic enzymes were disease-specific.•Endocannabinoid-system targets were related to treatment status, disease stage and symptom severity.•Endocannabinoid targets may be promising for development of novel therapeutics.
Studies from preclinical animal models indicate that sustained activation of CB1 receptor signaling is a major contributing factor for the onset of cognitive deficits associated to chronic cannabis ...use, in particular within the working memory and decision-making domains. Yet, very few studies have been designed to directly assess the role of CB1 receptors in mediating the effects of cannabis on human brain function. This perspective review article provides an overview of current state of knowledge on possible neurobiological mechanisms accounting for the detrimental effects of chronic cannabis use on cognition and related changes in brain structure and functional connectivity.
This article is part of the Special Issue entitled “A New Dawn in Cannabinoid Neurobiology”.
Cannabis is the most commonly used illicit drug in the world. Cannabinoids have been shown to modulate immune responses; however, the association of cannabis with neuroimmune function has never been ...investigated in vivo in the human brain.
To investigate neuroimmune activation or 18-kDa translocator protein (TSPO) levels in long-term cannabis users, and to evaluate the association of brain TSPO levels with behavioral measures and inflammatory blood biomarkers.
This cross-sectional study based in Toronto, Ontario, recruited individuals from January 1, 2015, to October 30, 2018. Participants included long-term cannabis users (n = 24) and non-cannabis-using controls (n = 27). Cannabis users were included if they had a positive urine drug screen for only cannabis and if they used cannabis at least 4 times per week for the past 12 months and/or met the criteria for cannabis use disorder. All participants underwent a positron emission tomography scan with 18FFEPPA, or fluorine F 18-labeled N-(2-(2-fluoroethoxy)benzyl)-N-(4-phenoxypyridin-3-yl)acetamide.
Total distribution volume was quantified across regions of interest. Stress and anxiety as well as peripheral measures of inflammatory cytokines and C-reactive protein levels were also measured.
In total, 24 long-term cannabis users (mean SD age, 23.1 3.8 years; 15 men 63%) and 27 non-cannabis-using controls (mean SD age, 23.6 4.2 years; 18 women 67%) were included and completed all study procedures. Compared with the controls, cannabis users had higher 18FFEPPA total distribution volume (main group effect: F1,48 = 6.5 P = .01; ROI effect: F1,200 = 28.4 P < .001; Cohen d = 0.6; 23.3% higher), with a more prominent implication for the cannabis use disorder subgroup (n = 15; main group effect: F1,39 = 8.5 P = .006; ROI effect: F1,164 = 19.3 P < .001; Cohen d = 0.8; 31.5% higher). Greater TSPO levels in the brain were associated with stress and anxiety and with higher circulating C-reactive protein levels in cannabis users.
The results of this study suggest that TSPO levels in cannabis users, particularly in those with cannabis use disorder, are higher than those in non-cannabis-using controls. The findings emphasize the need for more complementary preclinical systems for a better understanding of the role of cannabinoids and TSPO in neuroimmune signaling.
Cannabis, the most widely used illicit drug worldwide, produces psychoactive effects through its component cannabinoids, which act on the endocannabinoid system. Research on how cannabinoid exposure ...affects the endocannabinoid system is limited. Substantial evidence indicates cannabis use as a risk factor for psychosis, and the mechanism(s) by which this is occurring is/are currently unknown. Here, we conduct the first review of the effects of exogenous cannabinoids on the endocannabinoid system in humans with and without psychotic disorders. The most well established finding is the down-regulation of cannabinoid CB1 receptors (CB1R) after chronic and recent cannabis exposure, but it remains uncertain whether this effect is present in cannabis users with schizophrenia. We highlight where cannabis exposure affects the endocannabinoid system in a pattern that may mirror what is seen in psychosis, and how further research can push this field forward. In these times of changing cannabis legislation, research highlighting the biological effects of cannabinoids is greatly needed.
Alterations in glutamate neurotransmission have been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, as well as in symptom severity and cognitive deficits. The hippocampus, in particular, is a ...site of key functional and structural abnormalities in schizophrenia. Yet few studies have investigated hippocampal glutamate in antipsychotic-naïve first episode psychosis patients or in individuals at clinical high risk (CHR) of developing psychosis. Using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (
H-MRS), we investigated glutamate metabolite levels in the left hippocampus of 25 CHR (19 antipsychotic-naïve), 16 patients with first-episode psychosis (13 antipsychotic-naïve) and 31 healthy volunteers. We also explored associations between hippocampal glutamate metabolites and glial activation, as indexed by
FFEPPA positron emission tomography (PET); symptom severity; and cognitive function. Groups differed significantly in glutamate plus glutamine (Glx) levels (F
= 6.39, p = 0.003). Post-hoc analysis revealed that CHR had significantly lower Glx levels than both healthy volunteers (p = 0.003) and first-episode psychosis patients (p = 0.050). No associations were found between glutamate metabolites and glial activation. Our findings suggest that glutamate metabolites are altered in CHR.
Abstract
Background
Striatal dopamine (DA) synthesis capacity and release are elevated in schizophrenia (SCZ) and its putative prodrome, the clinical high risk (CHR) state. Striatal DA function ...results from the activity of midbrain DA neurons projecting mainly from the substantia nigra (SN). Elevated stress-induced DA release in SCZ and CHR was observed in the striatum; however, whether it is also elevated in the SN is unclear. The current study aims to determine whether nigral DA release in response to a validated stress task is altered in CHR and in antipsychotic-naïve SCZ. Further, we explore how DA release in the SN and striatum might be related.
Methods
24 CHR subjects, 9 antipsychotic-naïve SCZ and 25 healthy volunteers (HV) underwent 2 positron emission tomography (PET) scans using the DA D2/3 agonist radiotracer, 11C-(+)-PHNO, which allows simultaneous investigations of DA in the SN and striatum. Psychosocial stress-induced DA release was estimated as the percentage differences in BPND (%11C-(+)-PHNO displacement) between stress and sensory-motor control sessions.
Results
We observed a significant diagnostic group by session interaction, such that SCZ exhibited greater stress-induced 11C-(+)-PHNO % displacement (25.90% ± 32.2%; mean ± SD), as compared to HVs (−10.94% ± 27.1%). Displacement in CHRs (−1.13% ± 32.2%) did not differ significantly from either HV or SCZ.
Conclusion
Our findings suggest that elevated nigral DA responsiveness to stress is observed in antipsychotic-naïve SCZ.
Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) imposes a high societal burden given the repetitive reactive aggression that affected individuals perpetrate. Since the brain endocannabinoid system (ECS) has ...been implicated in ASPD and aggressive behavior, we utilized
CCURB positron emission tomography to investigate fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), an enzyme of the ECS that degrades anandamide, in 16 individuals with ASPD and 16 control participants. We hypothesized that FAAH density would be lower in the amygdala for several reasons. First, decreased FAAH expression is associated with increased cannabinoid receptor 1 stimulation, which may be responsible for amygdala hyper-reactivity in reactive aggression. Second, the amygdala is the seat of the neural circuit mediating reactive aggression. Third, other PET studies of externalizing populations show reduced brain FAAH density. Conversely, we hypothesized that FAAH expression would be greater in the orbitofrontal cortex. Consistent with our hypothesis, we found that amygdala FAAH density was lower in the amygdala of ASPD (p = 0.013). Cerebellar and striatal FAAH expression were inversely related with impulsivity (cerebellum: r = -0.60, p = 0.017; dorsal caudate: r = -0.58, p = 0.023; dorsal putamen: r = -0.55, p = 0.034), while cerebellar FAAH density was also negatively associated with assaultive aggression (r = -0.54, p = 0.035). ASPD presents high levels of disruptive behavior with few, if any, efficacious treatment options. Novel therapeutics that increase FAAH brain levels in a region-specific manner could hold promise for attenuating certain symptom clusters of ASPD, although our results require replication.
Dysregulation of hippocampus glutamatergic neurotransmission and reductions in hippocampal volume have been associated with psychiatric disorders. The endocannabinoid system modulates glutamate ...neurotransmission and brain development, including hippocampal remodeling. In humans, elevated levels of anandamide and lower activity of its catabolic enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) are associated with schizophrenia diagnosis and psychotic symptom severity, respectively (Neuropsychopharmacol, 29(11), 2108–2114; Biol. Psychiatry 88 (9), 727–735). Although preclinical studies provide strong evidence linking anandamide and FAAH to hippocampus neurotransmission and structure, these relationships remain poorly understood in humans. We recruited young adults with and without psychotic disorders and measured FAAH activity, hippocampal glutamate and glutamine (Glx), and hippocampal volume using 11CCURB positron emission tomography (PET), proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) and T1-weighted structural MRI, respectively. We hypothesized that higher FAAH activity would be associated with greater hippocampus Glx and lower hippocampus volume, and that these effects would differ in patients with psychotic disorders relative to healthy control participants. After attrition and quality control, a total of 37 participants (62% male) completed 11CCURB PET and 1H-MRS of the left hippocampus, and 45 (69% male) completed 11CCURB PET and hippocampal volumetry. Higher FAAH activity was associated with greater concentration of hippocampal Glx (F1,36.36 = 9.17, p = 0.0045; Cohen’s f = 0.30, medium effect size) and smaller hippocampal volume (F1,44.70 = 5.94, p = 0.019, Cohen’s f = 0.26, medium effect size). These effects did not differ between psychosis and healthy control groups (no group interaction). This multimodal imaging study provides the first in vivo evidence linking hippocampal Glx and hippocampus volume with endocannabinoid metabolism in the human brain.
There is evidence that long-term cannabis use is associated with alterations to glutamate neurotransmission and glial function. In this study, 26 long-term cannabis users (males=65.4%) and 47 ...non-cannabis using healthy controls (males=44.6%) underwent proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (
1
H-MRS) of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in order to characterize neurometabolite alterations in cannabis users and to examine associations between neurometabolites, cannabis exposure, and cannabis use behaviors. Myo-inositol, a marker of glial function, and glutamate metabolites did not differ between healthy controls and cannabis users or cannabis users who met criteria for DSM5 cannabis use disorder (n=17). Lower myo-inositol, a putative marker of glial function, was related to greater problematic drug use (F
1,22
= 11.95, p=.002; Cohen’s f=0.59, large effect; Drug Abuse Screening Test) and severity of cannabis dependence (F
1,22
= 6.61, p=.17; Cohen’s f=0.44, large effect). Further, past-year cannabis exposure exerted different effects on glutamate and glutamate+glutamine in males and females (glutamate: F
1,21
= 6.31, p=.02; glutamate+glutamine: F
1,21
= 7.20, p=.014), such that greater past-year cannabis exposure was related to higher concentrations of glutamate metabolites in male cannabis users (glutamate: F
1,14
= 25.94, p=.00016; Cohen’s f=1.32, large effect; glutamate+glutamine: F
1,14
= 23.24, p=.00027, Cohen’s f=1.24, large effect) but not in female cannabis users (glutamate: F
1,6
= 1.37, p=0.78; glutamate+glutamine: F
1,6
= 0.001, p=.97). The present results extend existing evidence of altered glial function and glutamate metabolism with cannabis use by providing evidence linking problematic drug use behaviors with glial function as measured with myo-inositol and recent chronic cannabis exposure to alterations in glutamate metabolism. This provides novel directions for the interrogation of the impact of cannabis use on brain neurochemistry.
The adoption of CRISPR-Cas9 technology for functional genetic screens has been a transformative advance. Due to its modular nature, this technology can be customized to address a myriad of questions. ...To date, pooled, genome-scale studies have uncovered genes responsible for survival, proliferation, drug resistance, viral susceptibility, and many other functions. The technology has even been applied to the functional interrogation of the non-coding genome. However, applications of this technology to neurological diseases remain scarce. This shortfall motivated the assembly of a review that will hopefully help researchers moving in this direction find their footing. The emphasis here will be on design considerations and concepts underlying this methodology. We will highlight groundbreaking studies in the CRISPR-Cas9 functional genetics field and discuss strengths and limitations of this technology for neurological disease applications. Finally, we will provide practical guidance on navigating the many choices that need to be made when implementing a CRISPR-Cas9 functional genetic screen for the study of neurological diseases.
PDF
