Many human viral diseases are a consequence of a zoonotic event. Some of the diseases caused by these zoonotic events have affected millions of people around the world, some of which have resulted in ...high rates of morbidity/mortality in humans. Changes in the viral proteins that function as ligands of the host receptor may promote the spillover between species. The most recent of these zoonotic events that have caused an ongoing epidemic of high magnitude is the Covid-19 epidemics caused by SARS-CoV-2. The aim of this study was to determine the mutation(s) in the sequence of the spike protein of the SARS-CoV-2 that might be favoring human to human transmission. An
approach was performed, and changes were detected in the S1 subunit of the receptor-binding domain of spike. The observed changes have significant effect on SARS-CoV-2 spike/ACE2 interaction and produce a reduction in the binding energy, compared to the one of the Bat-CoV to this receptor. The data presented in this study suggest a higher affinity of the SARS-Cov-2 spike protein to the human ACE2 receptor, compared to the one of Bat-CoV spike and ACE2. This could be the cause of the rapid viral spread of SARS-CoV-2 in humans.
Any intrinsic or extrinsic stimulus that evokes a biological response is known as stress. The compensatory responses to these stresses are known as stress responses. Based on the type, timing and ...severity of the applied stimulus, stress can exert various actions on the body ranging from alterations in homeostasis to life-threatening effects and death. In many cases, the pathophysiological complications of disease arise from stress and the subjects exposed to stress, e.g. those that work or live in stressful environments, have a higher likelihood of many disorders. Stress can be either a triggering or aggravating factor for many diseases and pathological conditions. In this study, we have reviewed some of the major effects of stress on the primary physiological systems of humans.
Pesticides are known for their high persistence and pervasiveness in the environment, and along with products of their biotransformation, they may remain in and interact with the environment and ...living organisms in multiple ways, according to their nature and chemical structure, dose and targets. In this review, the classifications of pesticides based on their nature, use, physical state, pathophysiological effects, and sources are discussed. The effects of these xenobiotics on the environment, their biotransformation in terms of bioaccumulation are highlighted with special focus on the molecular mechanisms deciphered to date. Basing on targeted organisms, most pesticides are classified as herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides. Herbicides are known as growth regulators, seedling growth inhibitors, photosynthesis inhibitors, inhibitors of amino acid and lipid biosynthesis, cell membrane disrupters, and pigment biosynthesis inhibitors, whereas fungicides include inhibitors of ergosterol biosynthesis, protein biosynthesis, and mitochondrial respiration. Insecticides mainly affect nerves and muscle, growth and development, and energy production. Studying the impact of pesticides and other related chemicals is of great interest to animal and human health risk assessment processes since potentially everyone can be exposed to these compounds which may cause many diseases, including metabolic syndrome, malnutrition, atherosclerosis, inflammation, pathogen invasion, nerve injury, and susceptibility to infectious diseases. Future studies should be directed to investigate influence of long term effects of low pesticide doses and to minimize or eliminate influence of pesticides on non-target living organisms, produce more specific pesticides and using modern technologies to decrease contamination of food and other goods by pesticides.
Laboratory testing is important in the diagnosis and monitoring of liver injury and disease. Current liver tests include plasma markers of injury (e.g. aminotransferases, γ-glutamyl transferase, and ...alkaline phosphatase), markers of function (e.g. prothrombin time, bilirubin), viral hepatitis serologies, and markers of proliferation (e.g. α-fetoprotein). Among the injury markers, the alanine and aspartate aminotransferases (ALT and AST, respectively) are the most commonly used. However, interpretation of ALT and AST plasma levels can be complicated. Furthermore, both have poor prognostic utility in acute liver injury and liver failure. New biomarkers of liver injury are rapidly being developed, and the US Food and Drug Administration the European Medicines Agency have recently expressed support for use of some of these biomarkers in drug trials. The purpose of this paper is to review the history of liver biomarkers, to summarize mechanisms and interpretation of ALT and AST elevation in plasma in liver injury (particularly acute liver injury), and to discuss emerging liver injury biomarkers that may complement or even replace ALT and AST in the future.
Since ancient times, natural products from plants, animals, microbial and marine sources have been exploited for treatment of several diseases. The knowledge of our ancestors is the base of modern ...drug discovery process. However, due to the presence of extensive biodiversity in natural sources, the percentage of secondary metabolites screened for bioactivity is low. This review aims to provide a brief overview of historically significant natural therapeutic agents along with some current potential drug candidates. It will also provide an insight into pros and cons of natural product discovery and how development of recent approaches has answered the challenges associated with it.
Osteoporosis affects about 200 million people worldwide and is a silent disease until a fracture occurs. Management of osteoporosis is still a challenge that warrants further studies for establishing ...new prevention strategies and more effective treatment modalities. For this purpose, animal models of osteoporosis are appropriate tools, of which the ovariectomized rat model is the most commonly used. The aim of this study is to provide a 4-step guideline for inducing a rat model of osteoporosis by ovariectomy (OVX): (1) selection of the rat strain, (2) choosing the appropriate age of rats at the time of OVX, (3) selection of an appropriate surgical method and verification of OVX, and (4) evaluation of OVX-induced osteoporosis. This review of literature shows that (i) Sprague-Dawley and Wistar rats are the most common strains used, both responding similarly to OVX; (ii) six months of age appears to be the best time for inducing OVX; (iii) dorsolateral skin incision is an appropriate choice for initiating OVX; and (iv) the success of OVX can be verified 1-3 weeks after surgery, following cessation of the regular estrus cycles, decreased estradiol, progesterone, and uterine weight as well as increased LH and FSH levels. Current data shows that the responses of trabecular bones of proximal tibia, lumbar vertebrae and femur to OVX are similar to those in humans; however, for short-term studies, proximal tibia is recommended. Osteoporosis in rats is verified by lower bone mineral density and lower trabecular number and thickness as well as higher trabecular separation, changes that are observed at 14, 30, and 60 days post-OVX in proximal tibia, lumbar vertebrae and femur, respectively.
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a heterogeneous disease that is caused by the interaction of genetic and environmental factors. Although it is one of the most common cancers worldwide, CRC would be one of ...the most curable cancers if it is detected in the early stages. Molecular changes that occur in colorectal cancer may be categorized into three main groups: 1) Chromosomal Instability (CIN), 2) Microsatellite Instability (MSI), and 3) CpG Island Methylator phenotype (CIMP). Microsatellites, also known as Short Tandem Repeats (STRs) are small (1-6 base pairs) repeating stretches of DNA scattered throughout the entire genome and account for approximately 3 % of the human genome. Due to their repeated structure, microsatellites are prone to high mutation rate. Microsatellite instability (MSI) is a unique molecular alteration and hyper-mutable phenotype, which is the result of a defective DNA mismatch repair (MMR) system, and can be defined as the presence of alternate sized repetitive DNA sequences which are not present in the corresponding germ line DNA. The presence of MSI is found in sporadic colon, gastric, sporadic endometrial and the majority of other cancers. Approximately, 15-20 % of colorectal cancers display MSI. Determination of MSI status in CRC has prognostic and therapeutic implications. As well, detecting MSI is used diagnostically for tumor detection and classification. For these reasons, microsatellite instability analysis is becoming more and more important in colorectal cancer patients. The objective of this review is to provide the comprehensive summary of the update knowledge of colorectal cancer classification and diagnostic features of microsatellite instability.
Osteoporosis is a metabolic bone disease that, on a cellular level, results from osteoclastic bone resorption not compensated by osteoblastic bone formation. This causes bones to become weak and ...fragile, thus increasing the risk of fractures. Traditional pathophysiological concepts of osteoporosis focused on endocrine mechanisms such as estrogen or vitamin D deficiency as well as secondary hyperparathyroidism. However, research over the last decades provided exiting new insights into mechanisms contributing to the onset of osteoporosis, which go far beyond this. Selected mechanisms such as interactions between bone and the immune system, the gut microbiome, and cellular senescence are reviewed in this article. Furthermore, an overview on currently available osteoporosis medications including antiresorptive and bone forming drugs is provided and an outlook on potential future treatment options is given.
Eukaryotic lncRNAs are RNA molecules defined to be greater than 200 bp in length that are not translated to a protein and operate through several mechanisms, including participating in chromatin ...remodeling and methylation, influencing the integrity and stability of proteins and complexes, or acting as a sponge for miRNA inhibition. A number of recent studies have concentrated on the relationship between long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and cancer. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most prevalent histological type of liver tumors, accounting for about 80 % of the cases worldwide. Lack of proper molecular markers for diagnosis of HCC and treatment evaluation is a significant problem. Dysregulated expression of HCC-related lncRNAs such as MEG-3, MALAT1, HULC, HOTAIR, and H19 have been identified and closely related with tumorigenesis, metastasis, prognosis and diagnosis. In this review, we summarized recent highlighted functions and molecular mechanisms of the most extensively studied lncRNAs in the pathophysiology of hepatocellular carcinoma and their potential for serving as probable therapeutic targets.
Due to numerous links between trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) and various disorders and diseases, this topic is very popular and is often taken up by researchers. TMAO is a low molecular weight ...compound that belongs to the class of amine oxides. It is formed by the process of oxidation of trimethylamine (TMA) by the hepatic flavin monooxygenases (FMO1 and FMO3). TMAO is mainly formed from nutritional substrates from the metabolism of phosphatidylcholine/choline, carnitine, betaine, dimethylglycine, and ergothioneine by intestinal microflora in the colon. Its level is determined by many factors, such as age, gender, diet, intestinal microflora composition, kidney function, and also liver flavin monooxygenase activity. Many studies report a positive relationship between the level of TMAO concentration and the development of various diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases and cardiorenal disorders, including atherosclerosis, hypertension, ischemic stroke, atrial fibrillation, heart failure, acute myocardial infarction, and chronic kidney disease, and also diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, cancers (stomach, colon), as well as neurological disorders. In this review, we have summarized the current knowledge on the effects of TMAO on human health, the relationship between TMAO and intestinal microbiota, the role of TMAO in different diseases, and current analytical techniques used in TMAO determination in body fluids.
