Homoseksualizm w starożytnym Egipcie Ćwiek, Andrzej
Verbum vitae : półrocznik biblijno-teologiczny,
2021, Letnik:
39, Številka:
1
Journal Article
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The issue of homosexuality in ancient Egypt has been studied for less than a century. Both the attitude towards, and the methodology regarding, this issue changed constantly over time. The author ...presents a critical review of the literature, together with some original interpretations. The most important sources, which are relatively not numerous and often ambiguous, are described. The written sources include religious and literary texts e.g. the tale Horus and Seth, the story of King Nefer-ka-Ra and “General” Sa-senet, mentions in the instructions of Peteh-hetep, the Book of the Dead (the “negative confession” in the Chapter 125), the Coffin Texts and dream-books. Analysis of the texts reveals many controversial questions concerning the context of the message, as well as the phraseology and proper meaning of the terms related to the issue of sexuality. Two categories clearly appear: homosexual rape, with the intention to dominate and humiliate an enemy, and a emotional relationship leading to sexual acts. The iconographic sources are less numerous, and their interpretations much disputable. They include the images of Ni-ankh-Khenemu and Khenemu-hetep in their shared tomb at Saqqara, the depictions of same-sex couples, graffiti, and drawings on ostraca depicting (homosexual?) couples having sex. A large part of the sources in unequivocal, and in the case of lesbian love simply vague. Data on the attitude of the ancient Egyptians towards homosexual relations are ambivalent at best. They were considered socially incorrect but not penalized.
Homosexuality was a known, though rare, phenomenon in ancient Mesopotamia. Ancient expressions of homosexuality differed significantly from modern ones, because in antiquity it usually meant the ...domination of one man and the disgrace of the other. For this reason, an enemy could be wished to become a male prostitute. If homosexual acts took place between persons of equal status, then it was punishable. Another form of homosexuality was sacred prostitution as part of the cult of Inanna/Ishtar. The male temple personnel involved (as passive partners) in such a form of worship possessed a social status lower than that of free men. There are no known records or depictions of homosexual behavior among women.
Since the discovery of the substantial corpus of Manichaean writings, especially the Kephalaia (editio princeps Polotsky-Böhlig, 1934-1940), the Cologne Mani Codex (= CMC), and the hitherto ...incompletely published library from Dachla (Ian Gardner, 2000), there can be no doubt as to the activities of the missionaries of the great Persian gnostic Mani in the Southern Nile Valley and Red Sea regions. This fact not only confirms the views of J. Helderman “that the Manichaean missionaries entered Egypt from the South-East, i.e. initially to Upper Egypt” (‘Manichäische Züge im Thomasevangelium’, 483f., note 42), but also the historical observations concerning the origins and development of monasticism. The latter was not without Manichaean influence, not merely in Egypt, but also in Nubia and Ethiopia. A mosaic, seemingly depicting Mani (from the collection of Elie Borowski), testifies to the pictorial needs of the Manichaeans as do the mural paintings from Pachoras/Faras depicting the likeness of Onophrios. These demonstrate the popularity of the crinite ascetic”, a figure also found in the CMC. It is imperative to recall the decisive importance of the southern kingdoms along the Red Sea during the Axial Age (Karl Jaspers), in order to kindle historical awareness in Europe of this currently overlooked region on the eve of its islamicisation – something which for decades I have noted the importance of in numerous publications (cf. foot-note 40). Here, local Christianity (viewed anachronistically) was marked by a heretical-gnostic diversity from the very beginning, which in turn weakened the spread of Christian teaching in the region. Islam was initially seen here by some as a Christian heresy (as pointed out by A. v. Harnack) and which even became accepted (e.g. in Ethiopia or Nubia, as noted by H. Jansen, Muhammed German ed.: Münich 2008, 141). Thus, the local doctrinal pluriformity of Christianity during the jāhiliyya prepared the way for the later Islamic expansion. Manichaeism belongs unequivocally to the “periphery cultures of the Christian world” (Pogranicza chrześcijaństwa) as well as constituting a part of expanding Christianity in the Late Antique world. Manichaeism still holds many secrets, but at the same time their answers, as illustrated by this article. Hence, the gnostic element of Early Christianity is worthy of continued intensive study, something which unfortunately in Poland is still quite inadequate.
Religious Practice and Cultural Construction of Animal Worship
in Egypt from the Early Dynastic to the New Kingdom presents
an articulated historical interpretation of Egyptian 'animal
worship' - ...intended as a segment of religious practice focused on
the mobilisation of selected animals within strategically designed
ritual contexts - from the Early Dynastic to the New Kingdom, and
offers a new understanding of its chronological development through
a fresh review of pertinent archaeological and textual data. The
goal is twofold: (1) to re-conceptualise the notion of 'animal
worship' on firm theoretical and material bases, reassessing its
heuristic value as a tool for analysis; (2) to demonstrate,
accordingly, that 'animal worship' did not represent a late
degeneration of traditional religion, socially (popular cult) and
thematically (animal mummies and burials) restricted, but a complex
domain of religious practice with a longer history and a larger
variety of configurations than usually assumed.
The Historia Monachorum contains material which is instructive for social life in fourth century Egypt, for monasticism in its exterior aspects in Egypt, and for the spiritual and moral approach of ...visitors to Egypt in recording the account of the lives of the monks. One of the elements in the whole literature of early monasticism which is perhaps especially unfamiliar to the modern reader is the account it gives of miracles There are in the Historia Monachorum the miracles of clairvoyance; the miracles of healing; miraculous dreams and visions; and ‘nature’ miracles. These events are not seen primarily as mirabilia, as things to be wondered at for their strangeness, as being contrary to the course of nature. There are signs, and signs of the power of God. There are, moreover, signs that God is working as strongly now as he did among the prophets and apostles. They illustrate the virtus of the monks, and place them directly in the line of the biblical revelation of the power of God.
The author presents the history of the Church of Egypt after the Council of Chalcedon (451), and trying to determine the final destruction of the unity of Patriarchate of Alexandria. At the beginning ...of the crisis were the decisions taken at the Council, but the process of creating a separate patriarchates (Melkite and Monophysite) in Egypt last long. Some researchers, such as William H.C. Frend, consider turning point in this process the death of the Emperor Justinian (565), while in the East began to create a separate Monophysite Church hierarchy. Such conclusions appear premature regards Egypt, although these may be correct with regard to Syria. It seems that the creation of two separate Christian Churches in Egypt take place in Egypt later, during the reign of Emperor Heraclius (610-641).
The aim of this paper was to present the Egyptian land in two apocalyptic texts both written in a Coptic language. First – the Apocalypse of Elijah (written in two Coptic dialectical versions: ...Sahidic and Achmimic) – shows a typical biblical meaning of Egypt as a place full of pain, death and fear. On the other hand, in the Codex VI of the Nag Hammadi Library there is the Apocalypse which gives us quite different image of that part of African land. This very Apocalypse is called the Apocalypse of Hermes Trismegistos or the Hermetic Apocalypse (written in Sahidic dialect and partly in the ancient Greek, whole test is composed in a Latin version and attributed to Ps-Apuleius of Madaura). Here, Egypt seems to be a paradise – image of heaven, land of gods and beautiful temples. But suddenly, that peaceful part of the world turns into “hell” with death, blood and pain – just like in the Apocalypse of Elijah. Our purpose was to analyze those two Coptic Apocalypse, compare the results and finally, try to find the answer on the basic questions: Egypt – heaven or hell? Could it be that this land was full of blood because of monotheistic religion?
Lumbering State, Restless Society offers a comprehensive
and compelling understanding of modern Egypt. Nathan J. Brown,
Shimaa Hatab, and Amr Adly guide readers through crucial
developments in ...Egyptian politics, society, and economics from the
middle of the twentieth century through the present. Integrating
diverse perspectives and areas of expertise, including the tools of
comparative politics, the book provides an accessible and clear
introduction to the Egypt of today alongside an innovative and
rigorous analysis of the country's history and governance. Brown,
Hatab, and Adly highlight ways in which Egypt resembles other
societies around the world, drawing from and contributing to
broader debates in political science. They trace the emergence of a
powerful and intrusive state alongside a society that is
increasingly politicized, and they emphasize how the rulers and
regimes who have built and steered the state apparatus have also
had to retreat and recalibrate. The authors also examine why
authoritarianism, corporatism, and socialism have decayed without
resulting in a liberal democratic order, and they show why Egyptian
politics should not be understood in terms of a single dominant
force but rather an interplay among many actors. At once current,
insightful, and engaging, Lumbering State, Restless
Society delivers a powerful and distinctive account of modern
Egypt in the modern world.
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