Rad donosi popise isplata vojsci u Hrvatskoj i Slavonskoj krajini u listopadu i studenome 1556. godine, transkript izvora te tablicu koja sistematizira u njima navedene podatke. Popraćen je i kratkom ...uvodnom studijom. U njoj su navedene osnovne informacije o projektu, ishodišnom dokumentu i postojećoj literaturi o temi rane vojnokrajiške povijesti. Studija također donosi kratku analizu struktura vlasti, etničke slike i društvene mobilnosti na Krajini te brojnosti, prostornog razmještaja i opskrbljenosti krajiških utvrda 1556. godine.
Sve do polovice 18. stoljeća malo se zna o školstvu u Hrvatskoj, posebice u Vojnoj krajini. Prije toga vremena postojeće škole bile su u rukama Crkve ili hrvatskoga plemstva. Mali je broj učenika ...pohađao takve škole, i to jedino ako su se pripremali za postati svećenicima ili za neka zanimanja od interesa vladajućih slojeva društva. Prijelomni trenutak u razvoju školstva uopće u Austrijskoj carevini, pa tako i u Hrvatskoj, bila je Felbigerova reforma (1774.) nakon koje su se počele graditi školske zgrade, otvarati škole, primjereno obrazovati učitelji, pisati novi školski udžbenici i stvarati povoljniji status učitelja. U sve te školske inovacije uključivao se, iako s neznatnim zaostatkom, i onaj dio Hrvatske koju povijesno zovemo Vojna krajina. U početku je bilo teškoća, nepoznavanja i neprihvaćanja bilo kakvih prijedloga o polascima djece u škole, ali su se, uz uključivanje istaknutih bolje obrazovanih pojedinaca pravoslavne vjeroispovijesti, postupno i u Vojnoj krajini mijenjale školske prilike. Donesen je i prvi pisani Zakon za male srpske škole koji je uz neznatne preinake i određena opiranja s vremenom donekle prihvaćen u svim dijelovima Vojne krajine.
Ovaj članak bavi se razmatranjem saborskih izbora na području grada Senja i njegovim upravnim statusom uoči razvojačenja Vojne krajine. U obzir su uzete i bitne odrednice koje su javljaju neposredno ...nakon tzv. provincijaliziranja, kad je Senj ponovo stekao civilnu upravu u sklopu Banske Hrvatske. Autor ukazuje na izvore nezadovoljstva Senjana njihovim položajem u sastavu Vojne krajine i na njihove težnje da s obnovom ustavnosti u Monarhiji povrate svoju gradsku autonomiju u građanskome dijelu Hrvatske. Težnja za razvojačanjem došla je do izražaja u saborskim raspravama na kojima su se jednoglasno razni zastupnici zalagali za interese grada Senja i njegovih građana, smatrajući da je glavni način za poticanje privrednih djelatnosti u odbacivanju utjecaja vojne uprave.
Vladavine Marije Terezije obilježena je brojnim reformama i iskoracima koji će se osjetiti u narednim stoljećima. Kao i Bjelovar, Sanitarni kordon će nakon njezina dolaska na vlast 1740. biti jasnije ...formiran mnogim reformama od koje se najviše ističe ona iz Općeg zdravstvenog pravilnika 1770. godine. Bjelovar je nastao kao jedan od odgovora na reorganizaciju Vojne krajine, a početak osnivanja Sanitarnoga kordona vezan je uza sve češće pojave kuge na habsburškome prostoru koje je trebao spriječiti. Za razliku od Bjelovara, Sanitarni kordon će prestati postojati razvojačenjem Vojne krajine, no njegovo postojanje i razvoj je, kao i ono Bjelovara, bilo jedno do simbola reorganizacije Vojne krajine i cijeloga 18. stoljeća.
U članku je problematiziran
Osnovni krajiški zakon
iz 1807. koji je Franjo I. (1792. – 1835.) proglasio za područje Hrvatsko-slavonske i Banatske vojne krajine. Analiziran je sadržaj zakona ...raspoređen u sedam poglavlja i 155 zakonskih članaka te izvorno objavljen na njemačkom i preveden već iduće godine na hrvatski i slavenosrpski jezik. Zakon je donesen u specifičnim povijesnim okolnostima koalicijskih ratova i u duhu reformi dvorskoga kruga oko vladara Franje I. Njegov sadržaj rezultat je višegodišnjega rada nekoliko dvorskih povjerenstava, pri čemu se osobito nastojalo steći uvid u konkretne probleme sustava kao i vojnokrajišku svakodnevicu da bi novim zakonom ponudila trajnija rješenja koja bi obuhvatila interese države, ali i krajiškoga puka. Zbog potrebe očuvanja vojnokrajiškoga sustava ta su rješenja ipak morala biti ograničena.
The Basic Law of the Military Frontier
is one of the most important legal acts issued for the Croatian-Slavonic and Banat Military Frontiers. First published in 1807 in German, it was translated the following year into Croatian, specifically the Slavonian Štokavian-Ikavian literary idiom, and to the Slavic-Serbian language. The law is not only trilingual, but also written in three scripts: German printed script, Latin, and Cyrillic. Unlike the preceding comprehensive legal acts like the Statuta Valachorum from 1630 or the Militar Gränitz Rechten from 1754, the
Basic Law of the Military Frontier
did not exclusively represent state intervention “from above” through legal regulations, but also incorporated customary law derived from the life of the frontiersmen, aligning with the contemporary understanding of the “spirit of the people.” Its third chapter, “Von der Haus-Communion,” is particularly notable, as it regulated the house cooperative (extended family) based on the idea of collective ownership, limited in accordance with the concept of military serfdom, labour, and consumption – which was a fundamentally different approach from half a century earlier. The law comprises the following parts: Einleitung, Erstes Hauptstück Von dem Rechte auf unbewegliche Güter, Zweytes Hauptstück Von dem Rechte der Gränzer, sich auf Gewerbe, Handel und Wissenschaften zu verlegen, Drittes Hauptstück Von der Haus-Communion, Viertes Hauptstück Von der militärischen Widmung der Gränzer, Fünftes Hauptstück Von der Gränz-Aerarial- und Gemeinde-Arbeit, Sechstes Hauptstück Von der Grundsteuer, and Siebentes Hauptstück Von der Industrie- und Schutzsteuer, encompassing a total of 155 legal articles. Under Emperor Francis I, the state committed numerous officers and officials at all levels of command hierarchy to craft the law over several years through the work of multiple commissions. The objective was to create a legal framework aligned with the specific political context and local socioeconomic environment, reflecting “the spirit of the people” as articulated in the law. The legal text aimed to achieve two goals: to provide a legal definition of private property in accordance with the particularities of the Military Frontier, as was the case in the neighbouring and rival Napoleonic France as well as the Inner Austrian lands, where the General Civil Code of the Military Frontier dynamized the socio-economic relations; and to preserve the region’s territory and organization for purely financial reasons. Despite these ambitious goals, the relatively modest outcome of this courtly legal project paradoxically contributed to the impoverishment and economic decline of this region in the 19th century.
The paper analyses the migration and ethnocultural processes in the Kosinj Valley in western Lika, which peaked during and immediately after the end of the Great Turkish War at the end of the 17th ...century and the start of the 18th century. During that time, the area became the intersection of the primary early modern migration flows in this part of the imperial multiple borderlands – southeast and northwest – with their diverse religious (Roman Catholics, Orthodox Christians), linguistic (neo-Shtokavian Ijekavian and Ikavian, Chakavian, and transitional Chakavian- Kajkavian), traditional (Dinaric, Adriatic, Pannonian, Eastern Alpine), and socioeconomic characteristics (frontiersmen/peasants, pastoral/agrarian). Each ethnocultural component was internally heterogeneous, characterised by distinct layers shaped by migrations across the turbulent imperial borderlands from the 16th to the 18th centuries. This led to various interactions and intermingling of cultural traditions, ethnic elements, languages, and dialects. It is concluded that the state military-provincial and Chamber authorities played a dominant role in these processes, directly or indirectly encouraging and directing migration flows for geopolitical and economic reasons. Therefore, from the outset, these migratory movements were characterised by planned military and agrarian colonisation. They favoured Catholic elements originating from Habsburg territories. Phenomenologically, they closely parallel the Vlach colonization of the Kosinj Valley a century earlier, which was conducted and directed by Ottoman authorities. Migrations in the turbulent border area of conflicting empires, with the Kosinj Valley at its centre for over 160 years, exhibited distinct dynamics. It was a region marked by intense emigration and immigration of defectors, including internal, external, or cross-border, and return migrations. The 16th and 17th centuries witnessed intense migration that began to subside only at the beginning of the 18th century. Namely, very few families in the 17th century had the chance to live in one place for three generations. The sons and grandsons of the Croats who fled to Carniola returned to Croatian territory in Gorski Kotar, only for the second generation of returnees to move to Lika. Similar return migrations are also observed among the Croats, Vlachs, and Bunjevci from Ogulin. To understand the settlement process, certain internal aspects of differentiated rural society also need to be considered. It is no coincidence that the elders, who were also leaders of migrations, often acquired the largest plots of land and formed the most numerous families in their new homeland. The same applies to Vlach elder families who, on both sides of the old border, retained their prestigious role as village leaders. In that period, the basic outlines of the modern ethnocultural structure of the Kosinj region were formed. The region became an intersection of primary migration flows in the Early Modern Period: the Vlach-Bunjevac, originating from the deep southeastern Dinaric interior, and the Croatian-Carniolan from the northwest, which also included elements originating in the eastern Alpine region. Their protagonists were early modern ethnic groups such as Vlachs, Croats, Carniolans and Bunjevci, who differed from each other along several criteria: socio-economic status, livelihoods, religious affiliation, dialects, family models and cultural areas. They all had in common that each ethnic group was internally heterogeneous and multi-layered. For instance, among the Vlachs, we observe traces of the old Balkan layer, Croats from Ogulin display Carniolan and Uskok-Vlach elements, Carniolan Croats exhibit Slovenian and German influences, and the Bunjevci include Orthodox Vlach converts. Vlachs from Kosinj historically migrated from East Herzegovina. They were part of the “Glamoč” and “Dinaric” migration flows, much like the majority of the Orthodox Vlach population that settled in Lika during the 16th century. Only a small fraction of the newly arrived population was strategically settled by Ottoman authorities across vast areas along their northwestern border, spanning from the Adriatic hinterland to the Drava River between 1550 and 1560. Serb Orthodoxy, neo-Shtokavian Ijekavian (also known as the East Herzegovina-Krajina dialect), seasonal transhumance, and the pastoral-patriarchal culture of the Dinaric area are elements that made them distinctive and distinguishable from their surroundings. After breaking away from their origins in southeastern Herzegovina during the early migrations of the 15th and 16th centuries, they followed a unique development trajectory that shaped a distinct “krajiški” (borderland) type within this historical ethnocultural group in their new habitats across northwestern Ottoman, and later Habsburg and Venetian territories. In 1689, Croatian Krajišnici (frontiersmen) from the Ogulin captaincy settled in Lower Kosinj, situated on the northern edge of a valley that today comprises the hamlets of Sveti Ivan, Draškovići, Selište, Rudine, Klobučari, and Goljak. They were part of the Croatian Chakavian population, specifically peasant soldiers who congregated around borderland fortresses in Ogulin, Oštarije, and Modruš during the 17th century. Some of their Chakavian linguistic features have been preserved to this day in the hamlets of Goljak, Rudinka, and Selište. The ethno-demographic structure of these Croats, which emerged during the first half of the 17th century, shows a tripartite composition. It comprised natives of Modruš, newcomers and/or returnees from Vinodol and Carniola, along with various branches of the Uskok-Vlach migration flows, predominantly migrants from Senj. In 1689, approximately 40 settler families from Gorski Kotar or the borders of Carniola settled the land along the Bakovac stream, extending all the way to its confluence with the Lika River. This area encompasses present-day Upper Kosinj, including the hamlets of Sušanj, Podjelar, and Poljanka, as well as the region of Bakovac and its hamlets Ribnik and Ruja. In most cases, these were descendants of the Croatian population who fled to Carniola in the 16th century. Therefore, it is more appropri¬ate to refer to this segment of the Catholic population in Kosinj in the pre-modern sense as “Carniolan Croats” despite the presence of some Slovenian and German elements among them. Secondly, it is necessary to differentiate between narrower and broader contexts of the usage of the Carniolan ethnicity within Lika itself. Carniolans, in the narrower sense, are represented by these settlers from Gorski Kotar, who were dependent peasants settled in Lika by the Inner Austrian Court Chamber, which introduced its chamber system there. In a broader sense, this ethnic term became a general label for Catholics in the Karlovac Generalate, particularly among the Orthodox population of Lika and Kordun. Bunjevci, also known as “Catholic Vlachs”, who settled in the Kosinj Valley, belonged to the so-called “Krmpote branch”. They were Catholic Vlachs originating from West Herzegovina who gradually migrated northwest, following the Dinaric migration flow along the Dinara and Velebit mountains during the 16th and 17th centuries. Due to their Herzegovian roots, history of Ottoman subjugation, Vlach social structure, pastoral and patriarchal cultural traditions of the Dinaric area (the culture of “dark cloth and gusle”), and the linguistic features of neo-Shtokavian Ikavian dialect, they exhibited cultural affinities with schismatic Vlachs in Lika. Special attention is given to the historical anthroponymy of the inhabitants of Kosinj, which verifies the aforementioned dynamics. Archival materials, including various documents, lists, and registers, provide valuable insights into their origins, movements, and distribution. Surnames among the Catholic population were documented considerably earlier, allowing for continuous tracing, especially among Croats from Ogulin and Carniola, dating back to the 15th and 16th centuries. The surnames of Orthodox families in Kosinj, and to a lesser extent Bunjevci families, can only be traced from their appearance in the Karlovac Generalate records, which means at best from the 17th century. The structural formation and meaning of surnames in Kosinj largely align with the dialectal and sociocultural characteristics of ethnic groups. Essentially, we can identify two anthroponymic origins: Croatian-Carniolan and Vlach-Bunjevac. It should be noted that surnames became established significantly earlier among Catholics, starting from the decisions of the Council of Trent in 1563, which introduced the practice of church registers for baptisms (Liber baptizatorum), marriages (Liber copulatorum), and deaths (Liber mortuorum). The Roman Ritual of 1614 mandated and required the keeping of parish family books known as Status animarum (“State of Souls”) in each parish. Combining it with other sources makes it significantly easier to reconstruct the migration patterns and dispersion of certain Catholic families of Croats and Carniolans, unlike the Bunjevci and especially the Vlachs, who were under Ottoman rule for a long time. By incorporating certain Croatian families that were once part of the middle and lower nobility, anthroponymic continuity is fully established. The Orthodox Church only began to introduce records of its congregation in the 18th century, prompted by the Habsburg Monarchy. First, through parish Domovni protokoli (Household protocols) in the mid-18th century, which listed Orthodox families in specific parishes, but it was only with the Regulament (Regulation) of 1770 that the introduction of parish registers began, mirroring the practice of the Catholic Church. However, in most Orthodox parishes in the Eparchy of Upper Karlovac, this practice was not adopted until the first half of the 19th century. Therefore, it’s not possible to trace most of Kosi
Temelji moderne šumarske znanosti i struke u Hrvatskoj (preporodno razdoblje) postavljeni su tijekom 19. stoljeća. U relativno kratkom vremenu tijekom druge polovine 19. stoljeća osnovano je ...Hrvatsko-slavonsko šumarsko društvo (1846), pokrenut je Šumarski list (1877), osnovano Gospodarsko-šumarskog učilišta u Križevcima (1860), usvojen Zakon o šumama za cijelu Austro-Ugarsku Monarhiju (1852), proveden „Zakon o imovnih općina u hrvatskoj i slavonskoj vojnoj Krajini“ (1873) i započela je s radom Šumarska akademija na Sveučilištu u Zagrebu (1898). Razdoblje je obilježeno i pojavom većeg broja stručno obrazovanih šumarskih stručnjaka koji su višu i visoku šumarsku naobrazbu stjecali u šumarskim učilištima u Hrvatskoj (Križevci) ili drugim europskim centrima. Među njima posebno se ističe Antun (Ante) Tomić rođen 1803. godine u Vinkovcima čije je djelovanje obilježilo sve nabrojane događaje u 19. stoljeću, a važne za hrvatsko šumarstvo. Iako se o djelovanju Antuna Tomića već pisalo i ranije (npr. Nenadić, Kerstenčanek, Piškorić i drugi) 220 godišnjica njegova rođenja dobar je povod za osvježiti sjećanje na Tomićev doprinos šumarskoj struci i hrvatskoj domovini. Prema tome cilj u ovom radu je prikazati Tomićevo djelovanje u kontekstu suvremenih izazova šumarske znanosti i struke. Antun Tomić završio je trogodišnje obrazovanje u Mariabrunnskom (Beč) šumarskom učilištu te je nakon vježbeništva obavljao odgovorne funkcije carsko-kraljevskog nadšumara u nizu pukovnija Vojne krajine. Paralelno se bavio znanstvenim radom te je iznio niz promišljanja o normalnoj drvnoj zalihi, razvoju šuma, modela uređivanja šuma i osiguranju potrajnosti šuma. Autor je organizacijskih reformi u šumarstvu Vojne krajine („Naputku za izlučenje imovno-obćinskih šuma u Krajini“ iz 1871. godine), osnivač i prvi predsjednik Hrvatskog šumarskog društva te vrstan šumarski stručnjak i znanstvenik koji svoje opsežno radno iskustvo pretače u primjenjive znanstvene radove iz gotovo svih područja šumarstva. Poveznica u svim radovima je očuvanje šuma te uspostava normaliteta i kroz normalitet potrajnost gospodarenja. Pri tome istančan Tomićev osjećaj za prirodnost očituje se u traženju preciznije prostorne stratifikacije šuma, preciznijeg utvrđivanja prirasta šume, fleksibilnijeg definiranja etata, većeg ulaganja u zaštitu i njegu šuma (posebno na narušenom (npr. krškom) staništu, a sve u cilju osiguranja potrajnosti gospodarenja šumama. Tomić sve nabrojane postavke uokviruje u svoju racionalnu metodu uređivanja šuma, tada vrlo naprednu kombiniranu metodu koja uvažava stvarno stanje i mogućnosti šuma. Pogledi Antuna Tomića na šumarstvo u temeljima su suvremene hrvatske šumarske struke, a težnja za uspostavom prostorno-vremenskog i strukturnog normaliteta šuma, time i potrajnost gospodarenja njima, trajan su izazov i cilj.
The foundations of modern forest science and practice in Croatia (revival period) were laid during the 19th century. In a relatively short time during the second half of the 19th century, the Croatian-Slavonic Forestry Society was founded (1846), the Forestry Journal was launched (1877), the Economic Forestry School in Križevci was established (1860), the Forestry Act was adopted for the whole Austro- Hungarian Monarchy (1852), the "Act on Property Municipalities in the Croatian and Slavonic Military Krajina" was implemented (1873) and the work of the Forestry Academy at the University of Zagreb began (1898). The period was also marked by the appearance of many professionally educated forestry experts who received higher education in forestry schools in Croatia (Križevci) or other European centres.
Among others, Antun (Ante) Tomić, born in 1803 in Vinkovci, played an outstanding role. His activities marked all the listed events, important for Croatian forestry in the 19th century. Although about Ante Tomić's work it has been written before (e.g. Nenadić, Kerstenčanek, Piškorić and others), the 220th anniversary of his birth is a good incentive to refresh the memory of Tomić's contribution to the forestry profession and to the Croatian homeland. Accordingly, the aim of this paper is to present Tomić's activities in the context of contemporary challenges of forestry science and profession. Antun Tomić completed a three-year education at the Mariabrunn (Vienna) Forestry College in 1824, and after his internship, he held the responsible functions as the Imperial-Royal Chief Forester in a number of regiments of the Military Frontier. At the same time, he engaged in scientific work and presented a series of reflections on normal growing stock, forest development, forest management models and ensuring the sustainability of forests. He is the author of the organizational reforms in the forestry of the Military Frontier ("Instructions for the demarcation of estate-community forests in the Krajina" from 1871), the founder and the first president of the Croatian Forestry Society, and an excellent forestry scientist who translated his extensive work experience into applicable scientific works from almost all forestry disciplines. The common feature in all his works is the forests conservation and the establishment of normality, and through normality reaching sustainable management. At the same time, Tomić's keen sense for close-to-nature forestry is manifested in the search for a more precise spatial stratification of forests, more precise forest growth measurement, more flexible definition of allowed harvest volume, greater investment in the conservation and care of forests (especially in disturbed (e.g. karst) habitats). All those ideas, aimed at ensuring the sustainable management of Croatian forests, Tomić framed in his rational method of forest management, which was a very advanced combined method that takes the actual condition and possibilities of forests into account.
Antun Tomić's views on forestry are the foundations of the modern Croatian forestry profession, and the aspiration to establish the spatiotemporal and structural normality of forests. Therefore, the sustainability of forest management stays a permanent challenge and goal.
Od Like do Šleske Balić, Juraj
Povijesni prilozi,
12/2021, Letnik:
40, Številka:
61
Journal Article, Paper
Recenzirano
Odprti dostop
Gotovo neprestano ratovanje koje se na europskom tlu odvijalo tijekom 18. stoljeća pružalo je brojne mogućnosti mladim i ambicioznim časnicima
koji su svoje vojne usluge stavljali na raspolaganje ...raznim europskim vladarima. Kao izvrstan primjer toga trenda može poslužiti slučaj Gideona Ernsta baruna Laudona (1717. – 1790.), časnika koji je vojnu karijeru započeo u Ruskom Carstvu, a potom prešao u službu habsburških vladara, gdje je ostvario nebrojene uspjehe na bojnom polju i dosegnuo sam vrh vojne hijerarhije. Laudon se pridružio habsburškim vojnim snagama u vrijeme Rata za austrijsku baštinu (1740. – 1748.) kao član Trenckova Pandurskoga dobrovoljačkog zbora, prilikom čega se bolje upoznao s vojnim umijećem „maloga rata”. Stečeno iskustvo proširio je nakon završetka toga sukoba kad mu je dodijeljen časnički položaj u Vojnoj krajini. Koristeći se vojnim umijećem i ratnim vještinama krajišnika, Laudon je ostvario znatne uspjehe u prvim godinama Sedmogodišnjega rata (1756. – 1763.), čime je započeo njegov nagli uspon
unutar habsburške vojne hijerarhije. U ovome radu razmatra se uloga krajišnika u Laudonovim vojnim pothvatima u spomenutom ratnom sukobu s ciljem utvrđivanja značenja te specifične skupine vojnika za Laudonov uspjeh na bojnom polju, kao i njihove važnosti u sklopu oružanih snaga Habsburške Monarhije.
Constant warfare throughout the
eighteenth century offered plentiful opportunities for young and aspiring
officers to advance their military and social positions by performing military
services for powerful European rulers. An example of this trend can be provided
by the case of Gideon Ernst, Baron von Laudon (1717 – 1790), who achieved
remarkable success in Habsburg service during the Seven Years’ War (1756 –
1763). Laudon began his military career in the service of the Romanovs, but
during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740 – 1748) he joined the Habsburg
armed forces eager to achieve further military experience and glory. He
acquired skill and knowledge of small war tactics during his service in
Trenck’s Pandour Free Corps. After the war ended, he was awarded a position in
the far south of the Habsburg Monarchy, in the Croatian Military Frontier,
where he accustomed himself to the military skills of the Grenzer. Upon the
outbreak of the Seven Year’s War Laudon led a Grenzer corps to Bohemia where the
Habsburg forces were trying to prevent the advance of the Prussians. The events
which followed marked the start of Laudon’s rapid ascension within the military
hierarchy. Throughout the years he continued to achieve fame and renown by
performing numerous military endeavours which inflicted serious damage on the
Prussian supply lines making a significant impact on the course of the war in
favour of the Habsburg side. Laudon and the Grenzer also participated in major
battles, such as Hochkirch and Kunersdorf, as well as assaults on strongholds
such as Landeshut and Schweidnitz. The utilization of the unique fighting
skills of the Grenzer and small war tactics proved an important factor in
Laudon’s rise within the military circles of the Habsburg Monarchy.
U radu se na temelju vojnog popisa Hrvatske i Primorske krajine iz 1712. godine donosi pregled i analiza strukture Senjske natkapetanije. Rekonstruira se brojčano stanje i vojni sastav te ...hijerahijski prikazuje njezino ustrojstvo po raznim uočenim sektorima i odredima. Analizira se financijska konstrukcija, plaće vojnog osoblja i vojnika te opisuju vojne obveze i elementi vojničkoga života. Također se rekonstruiraju i poveznice gradskog stanovništva Senja i njenih plemićkih, patricijskih i građanskih obitelji s vršenjem određenih elemenata vojne službe tijekom proučavanog perioda.
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