Why Status Matters for Inequality Ridgeway, Cecilia L.
American sociological review,
02/2014, Letnik:
79, Številka:
1
Journal Article
Recenzirano
To understand the mechanisms behind social inequality, this address argues that We need to more thoroughly incorporate the effects of status—inequality based on differences in esteem and ...respect—alongside those based on resources and power. As a micro motive for behavior, status is as significant as money and power. At a macro level, status stabilizes resource and power inequality by transforming it into cultural status beliefs about group differences regarding who is "better" (esteemed and competent). But cultural status beliefs about which groups are "better" constitute group differences as independent dimensions of inequality that generate material advantages due to group membership itself. Acting through microlevel social relations in workplaces, schools, and elsewhere, status beliefs bias evaluations of competence and suitability for authority, bias associational preferences, and evoke resistance to status challenges from low-status group members. These effects accumulate to direct members of higher status groups toward positions of resources and power while holding back lower status group members. Through these processes, status writes group differences such as gender, race, and class-based life style into organizational structures of resources and power, creating durable inequality. Status is thus a central mechanism behind durable patterns of inequality based on social differences.
Finite Difference Frequency Domain in MATLAB. Written especially for those who are new to computational electromagnetics, this book teaches you everything you need to know to simulate a wide variety ...of electromagnetic and photonic devices using the powerful finite-difference frequency-domain FDFD method. The book comprehensively reviews key concepts from electromagnetics and is packed with MATLAB codes and special techniques that demonstrate how FDFD can be applied to a very wide array of devices and applications. You will learn how to simulate three-dimensional devices like metamaterials and frequency selective
This study investigated sex/gender differences in camouflaging with children and adolescents (
N
= 84) with and without an autism diagnosis/increased levels of autistic traits using two ...conceptualisations/operationalisations of camouflaging. A significant group-by-gender interaction using ANCOVA, with the covariate of verbal IQ, reflected similar levels of social reciprocity in autistic and neurotypical females, whereas autistic males had lower reciprocity than neurotypical males. Autistic females also had higher reciprocity than autistic males, despite similar levels of autistic traits (behavioural camouflaging). Additionally, autistic males and females had similar theory of mind skills, despite females having increased reciprocity (compensatory camouflaging). These findings provide evidence of increased camouflaging in autistic females, which may contribute to delay in the recognition of difficulties and provision of support.
For almost 50 years field experiments have been used to study ethnic and racial discrimination in hiring decisions, consistently reporting high rates of discrimination against minority applicants - ...including immigrants - irrespective of time, location, or minority groups tested. While Peter A. Riach and Judith Rich 2002. "Field Experiments of Discrimination in the Market Place." The Economic Journal 112 (483): F480-F518 and Judith Rich 2014. "What Do Field Experiments of Discrimination in Markets Tell Us? A Meta Analysis of Studies Conducted since 2000." In Discussion Paper Series. Bonn: IZA provide systematic reviews of existing field experiments, no study has undertaken a meta-analysis to examine the findings in the studies reported. In this article, we present a meta-analysis of 738 correspondence tests in 43 separate studies conducted in OECD countries between 1990 and 2015. In addition to summarising research findings, we focus on groups of specific tests to ascertain the robustness of findings, emphasising differences across countries, gender, and economic contexts. Moreover we examine patterns of discrimination, by drawing on the fact that the groups considered in correspondence tests and the contexts of testing vary to some extent. We focus on first- and second-generation immigrants, differences between specific minority groups, the implementation of EU directives, and the length of job application packs.
Political reactions 'from below' to global land grabbing have been vastly more varied and complex than is usually assumed. This essay introduces a collection of ground-breaking studies that discuss ...responses that range from various types of organized and everyday resistance to demands for incorporation or for better terms of incorporation into land deals. Initiatives 'from below' in response to land deals have involved local and transnational alliances and the use of legal and extra-legal methods, and have brought victories and defeats. The relevance of political reactions to land grabbing is discussed in light of theories of social movements and critical agrarian studies. Future research on reactions 'from below' to land grabbing must include greater attention to gender and generational differences in both impacts and political agency.
As environmental problems grow increasingly prominent, energy-saving behavior research has gradually captured the attention of scholars throughout the world. This paper conducts a study of ...energy-saving behavior and the influencing factors using correlation analysis, multiple regression analysis and other research methods; it focuses first on urban and rural residents in Jiangsu Province and then regionally on North Jiangsu, Middle Jiangsu and South Jiangsu. The results show that (1) urban residents in Jiangsu Province tend to engage in more energy-saving activities than rural residents; regionally, the energy-saving tendencies of residents from the area can be ranked as follows: Middle Jiangsu residents > North Jiangsu residents > South Jiangsu residents. (2) Urban-rural differences and regional differences also exist in Jiangsu Province in terms of both buying choice behavior and daily use behavior. With regard to regional differences in the factors influencing buying choice behavior and daily use behavior to support energy saving, North Jiangsu residents are most influenced by a sense of responsibility for the environment, Middle Jiangsu residents by policies and regulations and energy-saving knowledge, and South Jiangsu residents by low-carbon energy-saving willingness and energy-saving knowledge. This paper offers differentiated guidance regarding policies based on its research conclusions.
•The paper separates energy consumption behavior into buying choice and daily use behavior.•Urban-rural and regional differences exist in residents’ energy consumption behavior.•Urban residents show a greater tendency toward energy-saving behavior than rural residents.•Middle Jiangsu residents’ energy-saving behavior is higher than that of residents of North and South Jiangsu.
Despite increased research on bullying over the past few decades, researchers still have little understanding of how bullying differentially affects racial and ethnic minority and immigrant youth. To ...facilitate efforts to better evaluate the impact of bullying among racial and ethnic minority youth and improve interventions, we integrated research from multiple disciplines and conducted a systematic search to review relevant cross-cultural research on the prevalence of bullying, risk and protective factors, and differences in behaviors and outcomes associated with bullying in these populations. Studies measuring differences in bullying prevalence by racial and ethnic groups are inconclusive, and discrepancies in findings may be explained by differences in how bullying is measured and the impact of school and social environments. Racial and ethnic minorities and immigrants are disproportionately affected by contextual-level risk factors associated with bullying (e.g., adverse community, home, and school environments), which may moderate the effects of individual-level predictors of bullying victimization or perpetration (e.g., depressive symptoms, acculturation stress, attitudes toward aggression, etc.) on involvement and outcomes. Minority youth may be more likely to perpetrate bullying, and are at much higher risk for poor health and behavioral outcomes as a result of bias-based bullying. At the same time, racial and ethnic minorities and immigrants may be protected against bullying involvement and its negative consequences as a result of strong ethnic identity, positive cultural and family values, and other resilience factors. Considering these findings, we evaluate existing bullying interventions and prevention programs and propose directions for future research.
•Bullying-related social-ecological factors disproportionately affect minorities.•Ethnic identity and cultural factors are protective for minorities.•Bias-based bullying poses greater health risks than non-bias-based bullying.•Cultural insensitivity in methodology may explain inconsistencies in findings.•Current interventions are less effective for minorities; future directions proposed.
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is an illness strongly influenced by sex and gender, with mortality rates in males significantly higher than females. There is still a dearth of understanding on where sex ...differences exist along the pathway from presentation to survival. The aim of this review is to identify where actions are needed to improve outcomes for both sexes, and to narrow the gap for CRC.
A cross-sectional review of national data was undertaken to identify sex differences in incidence, screening uptake, route to diagnosis, cancer stage at diagnosis and survival, and their influence in the sex differences in mortality.
Overall incidence is higher in men, with an earlier age distribution, however, important sex differences exist in anatomical site. There were relatively small differences in screening uptake, route to diagnosis, cancer staging at diagnosis and survival. Screening uptake is higher in women under 69 years. Women are more likely to present as emergency cases, with more men diagnosed through screening and two-week-wait. No sex differences are seen in diagnosis for more advanced disease. Overall, age-standardised 5-year survival is similar between the sexes.
As there are minimal sex differences in the data from routes to diagnosis to survival, the higher mortality of colorectal cancer in men appears to be a result of exogenous and/or endogenous factors pre-diagnosis that lead to higher incidence rates. There are however, sex and gender differences that suggest more targeted interventions may facilitate prevention and earlier diagnosis in both men and women.
In 1991, Anita Hill's testimony during Clarence Thomas's Senate confirmation hearing brought the problem of sexual harassment to a public audience. Although widely believed by women, Hill was defamed ...by conservatives and Thomas was confirmed to the Supreme Court. The tainting of Hill and her testimony is part of a larger social history in which women find themselves caught up in a system that refuses to believe what they say. Hill's experience shows how a tainted witness is not who someone is, but what someone can become.
Why are women so often considered unreliable witnesses to their own experiences? How are women discredited in legal courts and in courts of public opinion? Why is women's testimony so often mired in controversies fueled by histories of slavery and colonialism? How do new feminist witnesses enter testimonial networks and disrupt doubt?Tainted Witnessexamines how gender, race, and doubt stick to women witnesses as their testimony circulates in search of an adequate witness. Judgment falls unequally upon women who bear witness, as well-known conflicts about testimonial authority in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries reveal. Women's testimonial accounts demonstrate both the symbolic potency of women's bodies and speech in the public sphere and the relative lack of institutional security and control to which they can lay claim. Each testimonial act follows in the wake of a long and invidious association of race and gender with lying that can be found to this day within legal courts and everyday practices of judgment, defining these locations as willfully unknowing and hostile to complex accounts of harm. Bringing together feminist, literary, and legal frameworks, Leigh Gilmore provides provocative readings of what happens when women's testimony is discredited. She demonstrates how testimony crosses jurisdictions, publics, and the unsteady line between truth and fiction in search of justice.
Few spheres in life are as universally relevant for (almost) all individuals past puberty as sexuality. One important aspect of sexuality concerns individuals' sex drive-their dispositional sexual ...motivation. A vigorous scientific (and popular) debate revolves around the question of whether or not there is a gender difference in sex drive. Several theories predict a higher sex drive in men compared to women, with some theories attributing this difference to biased responding rather than true differences. Currently, there is little consensus on how to conceptualize sex drive, nor does a quantitative summary of the literature exist. In this article, we present a theory-driven conceptualization of sex drive as the density distribution of state sex drive, where state sex drive is defined as momentary sexual motivation that manifests in sexual cognition, affect, and behavior. We conduct a comprehensive meta-analysis of gender differences in sex drive based on 211 studies, 856 effect sizes, and 621,463 persons. The meta-analysis revealed a stronger sex drive in men compared to women, with a medium-to-large effect size, g = 0.69, 95% CI 0.58, 0.81. Men more often think and fantasize about sex, more often experience sexual affect like desire, and more often engage in masturbation than women. Adjustment for biased responding reduced the gender difference (g = 0.54). Moderation analyses suggest that the effect is robust and largely invariant to contextual factors. There was no evidence of publication bias. The discussion focuses on validity considerations, limitations, and implications for psychological theory and people's everyday lives.
Public Significance Statement
This article explains sex drive from a scientific, psychological perspective-operationalized as sexual thoughts, desire, and masturbation frequency-and provides support using a meta-analytic review that men have a stronger sex drive than women. Some but not all of these gender differences may be caused by men overreporting and/or women underreporting their sex drive. These findings advance our understanding of sexual dynamics in interpersonal relationships and society at large.
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