•A new measure of attitudes toward entomophagy has been presented.•The new self-report instrument has been validated on a representative Danish sample.•The three-factor structure of the instrument ...shows an excellent fit to the data.•A cross-validation on an Italian convenience sample fully supports the model.•The new scale predicts intention to eat insects better than existing measures.
Research has made steps towards the understanding of the main drivers and barriers related to Western consumers’ acceptance of food with ingredients derived from insects. Nevertheless, research has been hampered by the absence of a comprehensive, specific, and validated instrument for measuring consumer attitudes towards entomophagy. The current study presents a new self-report instrument for addressing this issue. The instrument was built upon three conceptual cores, which are reflected in the three factors emerged and tested through factor analyses performed on a representative sample of the Danish population (Study 1: N = 975), and a convenience Italian sample (Study 2: N = 543). The first factor represents the negative evaluation of direct entomophagy and is closely connected to disgust. The second factor represents the positive evaluation of direct entomophagy and is closely linked to individuals’ interest to try novel experiences and to eat novel foods. The third factor addresses indirect entomophagy, that is, the attitude towards using insects for feeding other animals that are reared for human consumption. Compared to existing measures of disgust and neophobia, the new instrument performs better in predicting intention in relation to both direct and indirect entomophagy.
Many types of edible insects in raw and processed forms have been consumed by many cultures globally since time immemorial, particularly in developing countries where they are mostly traditionally ...viewed as a delicacy besides provision of nutrition. As a food type, they are consumed in two main forms; whole insects or incorporated in various food products as an ingredient, the choice of which is consumer preference driven. Recently, there has been a lot of research interest in edible insects farming, processing and consumption mainly in an effort to eradicate food insecurities prevalent in many developing countries and boost nutrition. Inclusion of edible insects in human diets has been shown to improve the nutritional quality of foods due to their high micro- and macronutrient levels comparable and sometimes higher than those of animal-derived foods. It is in this regard that they can actually be used in directly addressing the first three UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (no poverty, zero hunger, and good health and well-being). Edible insects production also helps in mitigating the negative effects of climate change and improve biodiversity both of which positively contributes to food security. Even with all these benefits, several challenges are encountered in the promotion of edible insects farming and consumption in developing and developed countries. Top in the list of these obstacles is the issue of food safety where, especially western consumers willing to consume edible insects and/or edible insects-derived foods are wary of the microbiological and chemical health risk they could pose. Based on the current literature, there is clearly a need to balance the food safety concerns and the nutritional benefits of edible insects. There is a necessity to promote food safety and hygiene practices in the entire edible insect value chain including during wild harvesting in order to ensure that this highly nutritious food that requires little resources to produce is availed to the consumers in a state that does not pose any health risks. Lack of regulations on edible insects value chain which lacks in many countries, especially developing countries is also another problem that requires urgent attention as addressing this issue is likely to boost consumer confidence and ease trade of this commodity between countries.
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•L. monocytogenes and Salmonella were not reported in Bombyx mori.•B. cereus and Enterobacteriaceae were reported in edible silkworm.•Allergic reactions are likely in sensitive ...individuals eating edible silkworm.•Toxicity to Bombyx mori extracts was not observed in animal studies.•As, Cu and, Zn can accumulate in Bombyx mori.
Bombyx mori (BM) is an economically important insect for silk production, and it is also farmed and used as food in different countries around the world. The present systematic review aims to assess the suitability of BM as an edible insect, retrieving data from scientific papers reporting microbiological, chemical, and allergenic hazards of silkworm consumed as either whole insects or insect derivatives. We considered all studies published in peer-reviewed journals in English, French, and Spanish languages. No time limits were imposed. We searched PUBMED, WEB of Science Core Collection, and EMBASE databases. The last literature search was carried out on May 5th, 2021. Data were collected in pre-defined tabular forms for the aforementioned hazards. In total, 65 records investigating the safety aspects were included after screening: 32 on microbiological hazards; 27 on chemical hazards; 16 on allergenic hazards. Concerning microbiological aspects, a high presence of Enterococcus in raw insects (5.00 % to 70.10 %) was reported through metagenomic analysis. Through non-metagenomic methods (classical and biomolecular microbiology techniques), Bacillus cereus and Pseudomonas fluorescens were the most commonly investigated and detected bacteria in the unprocessed insects, while B. cereus and Enterobacteriaceae were studied and reported in insect-based food. The foodborne pathogens Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella spp. were never detected.
Concerning toxicological aspects, three studies assessed the toxicity of BM powder in laboratory animals, but no negative effects were observed. Regarding heavy metal bioaccumulation in BM, evidence was reported for As, Cu, and, Zn.
Allergic reactions following the ingestion of BM or derivative products are due to proteins that are widespread in arthropods. Furthermore, BM proteins can undergo possible cross-reactions with proteins of other insect species or crustaceans. However, heat treatments do not seem to reduce the allergenic potential of the silkworm proteins.
The major limitation of the present review is that we could include only scientific literature published in Western languages, while the majority of relevant studies were conducted in Asian countries and part of them are published in Asian languages.
In conclusion, scientific evidence regarding microbiological and chemical hazards of BM relevant for food safety is very limited. In the present work microbiological and chemical hazards relevant for food safety were identified in BM, however their presence do not impair the use as food but suggest the need for a risk assessment under specific conditions of production and use. Allergic reactions are possible in sensitive individuals following the ingestion of edible BM.
•One out of five meat consumers claims to be ready to adopt insects.•Males are 2.17 times more likely than females to adopt insects.•Consumers who plan to reduce meat intake are 4.51 times more ...likely to adopt insects.•Significant effects of food (technology) neophobia and familiarity are confirmed.•Belief that meat is healthy and focus on meat taste lower readiness to adopt insects.
This study investigates the readiness of consumers in a Western society, where traditional meat consumption prevails, to adopt insects as a substitute for meat. Using cross-sectional data (n=368) and binary logistic regression modeling, the study identifies gender, age, familiarity, food neophobia, convenience and environmental food choice motives, as well as meat-related attitudes and future meat consumption intentions as significant predictors. The predicted likelihood of adopting insects as a substitute for meat is 12.8% 95% CI: 6.1–19.4% for males and 6.3% 95% CI: 2.8–9.9% for females, other predictor variables held constant at their mean value. People who claim to be familiar with the idea of eating insects have a 2.6 times higher likelihood, and consumers who intend to reduce fresh meat intake are up to 4.5 times more likely to adopt insects. Food neophobia makes the largest contribution to consumers’ readiness to adopt insects: a one-unit increase in the food neophobia score is associated with a 84% decrease in the predicted odds of being ready to adopt insects. A stronger convenience orientation in food choice and a higher interest in the environmental impact of food choice increase the likelihood of adopting insects by 75% and 71% per unit increase in these predictors’ scores, respectively. By contrast, a one-unit stronger belief that meat is nutritious and healthy, and a one-unit higher importance attached to taste for meat lower the predicted odds by 64% and 61%, respectively. This study reveals that the most likely early adopters of insects as a novel and more sustainable protein source in Western societies are younger males with a weak attachment to meat, who are more open to trying novel foods and interested in the environmental impact of their food choice.
The aim of this study was to determine the nutritive value of edible insects and their in vitro cytotoxicity assays. The content of protein, fat, carbohydrates, ash, fiber, minerals, amino acids, and ...fatty acids in adult cricket (Gryllodes sigillatus), larvae of mealworm (Tenebrio molitor), and adult locust (Schistocerca gregaria) were analyzed. The protein content ranged from 52.35 to 76%. The fat percentage was in the range of 12.97–24.7%. Energy contribution varied from 1821 to 1896kJ/100g. Their amino acid profile was compared with the WHO/FAO/UNU Pattern (WHO, 2007). The highest degree of hydrolysis (DH) was noted in baked Gryllodes sigillatus (37.76%). All species were very rich in magnesium, copper, iron, and zinc and the mineral content was compared to recommended daily intakes (mg/day). The hydrolysates from raw, cooked, and baked insects were significantly stimulated or inhibited proliferation of human skin fibroblasts CRL-2522.
•Edible insects are a good source of the valuable nutritional compounds.•Edible insects' protein is a rich source of the essential amino acids.•The heat treatment process affects the degree of hydrolysis.•Some edible insects have the ability for stimulation of human skin fibroblast.
This paper aims to identify factors influencing household decisions on whether to consume edible termites and the level of termite consumption in the Vhembe district of Limpopo province in South ...Africa. The study used secondary data sourced from the Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development and the University of Witwatersrand that was collected from 104 households in the Vhembe District in 2016. A descriptive statistical analysis was used to profile consumers' socio-economic characteristics. In addition, a logistic model and Ordinary Least Squares were used to determine the factors influencing a household's decision to consume edible termites and the level of consumption respectively. The results revealed that demographic factors (the age and gender of the household head) and religious beliefs influenced both consumption and the level of consumption. In addition, the type of termite preferred positively influenced the level of consumption, while knowledge influenced the decision to consume termites. The recommendations based on these results are that efforts should be made to promote the consumption of edible termites among the younger population, particularly males. Education programs could be designed to increase knowledge about termites and their nutritional benefits, which may increase consumption. Additionally, efforts should be made to understand and address the negative influence of religion on the consumption of edible termites.
Edible insects seem one of the more probable responses to the increased quantity of food proteins needed in future prospective related to the increase of human population, mainly in developing ...countries. Introduction of entomophagy in developed countries, especially in Europe and North America, could help this trend and drive the world food economy to reach that goal. Few articles were published on acceptability of edible insect in European countries, with a large variability of methodologies used. Furthermore, both structure and unstructured (or semi-structured) techniques were analysed and compared. Through this review article, we analysed the different methodologies conducted on European consumers and categorised the studies in relation to the type of analysis chosen, data collection and results obtained. Limitation of the research studies and future recommendations were explored leading to better investigate consumers' acceptance.
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•We reviewed research articles on edible insects in the context of European consumers.•We focused on forty-one articles without restriction of year of publication.•We categorised researches' methodologies and gathered data into clusters.•We reviewed both structured and unstructured techniques.•We summarized the results of the research studies.
The potential use of insects as a novel food source has recently attracted a great deal of attention in Europe, as they have many environmental and nutritional advantages and thus present a promising ...and sustainable animal protein source. Yet despite insects being a highly appreciated food in many parts of the world, consumer aversion remains as the major barrier to successful implementation in Europe. This study examines prospects of edible whole insect and processed insect-based food in Germany and investigates determining factors for acceptance. It does so to better understand consumers' attitudes toward insects and to derive approaches for insect food to become more appreciated. An online survey was conducted within the German population with a final sample of 393 participants. Several explanatory variables were established, and their influence on the acceptance of whole and processed insect products was analyzed by applying ordinal regressions to compare the market potential and hurdles of either option. The main results show a low willingness to try insects among Germans and the prevalence of psychological and personality barriers to consumption, such as disgust and food neophobia. Focusing on processed insect products is shown to be the most promising strategy to implement entomophagy, as an essential barrier to consumption is the visibility of the insects. However, whether this strategy would diminish the rejection of any insect product requires further investigation.
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•This study aims to investigate key factors for acceptance of insects as food.•We differentiate the acceptance of whole and processed insect-based products.•An ordinal regression is implemented based on an online survey dataset.•Prevalence of barriers to consumption such as disgust and food neophobia•Processed insects should be implemented into familiar food items.
Over the last decade, the urgency to find alternative and sustainable protein sources has prompted an exponential increase in the interest in insects as a human food source. Edible insects contribute ...suitable amounts of energy and protein, fatty acids, and micronutrients to the human diet. Nutritional values of insects can be manipulated to meet specific needs. Edible insects in food-insecure countries can contribute to improving diets and preventing undernutrition. Bioactive compounds in insects may reduce health risks. Food safety risks are low and mainly relate to those of allergenicity. Strategies to overcome barriers to the consumption of insect products include emphasizing their sustainability, increasing their tastiness, and developing the ability to disguise insects in familiar products. A new sector of insects as food and feed is emerging. Major challenges include legislation, lowering prices by automation and cheap substrates, developing insect products that appeal to consumers, and exploring the health benefits.
•The Entomophagy Aversion Questionnaire has been validated in China.•The validity of the instrument has been tested among eaters and non-eaters.•The three-factor structure of the instrument shows an ...excellent fit to the data.•The main difference emerged between eaters and non-eaters regards the role of disgust.
Research interest in direct entomophagy (the eating of insects) and indirect entomophagy (the eating of insects-fed animals) has grown exponentially in recent years. The use of insects as food and feed is a potential avenue to meet the growing global food demand, and for enhancing the sustainability of animal diets as well. The Entomophagy Attitude Questionnaire (EAQ) has been recently proposed as a specific measure of attitudes towards direct and indirect entomophagy. First aim of the current study was to cross-validate the EAQ in a non-Western country. An additional aim was to explore the differences between who have previously eaten insects and who have not. Hence, the EAQ was administered to a convenience Chinese sample (N = 395), together with measures of intention to eat insects either directly or indirectly. Confirmatory Factor Analysis showed a satisfactory fit of the EAQ three-factor model. The instrument showed adequate psychometric properties, and evidences of convergent and divergent validity of EAQ’s latent constructs were found. In addition, EAQ was found to predict effectively participants’ intention to engage both in direct and indirect entomophagy. Results thus support the validity of EAQ and the conceptualization underpinning it in a non-Western country. The main difference emerged between eaters and non-eaters regards the role of disgust, which is more predictive of intention for non-eaters, whereas positive attitude (interest) is more predictive for eaters. Hence, different communication strategies are suggested for individuals who already have vs. have not experienced the direct or indirect eating of insects.
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