Social relationships are often touted as critical for well-being. However, the vast majority of studies on social relationships have relied on self-report measures of both social interactions and ...well-being, which makes it difficult to disentangle true associations from shared method variance. To address this gap, we assessed the quantity and quality of social interactions using both self-report and observer-based measures in everyday life. Participants (N = 256; 3,206 observations) wore the Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR), an unobtrusive audio recorder, and completed experience sampling method self-reports of their momentary social interactions, happiness, and feelings of social connectedness, 4 times each day for 1 week. Observers rated the quantity and quality of participants' social interactions based on the EAR recordings from the same time points. Quantity of social interactions was robustly associated with greater well-being in the moment and on average, whether they were measured with self-reports or observer reports. Conversational (conversational depth and self-disclosure) and relational (knowing and liking one's interaction partners) aspects of social interaction quality were also generally associated with greater well-being, but the effects were larger and more consistent for self-reported (vs. observer-reported) quality variables, within-person (vs. between-person) associations, and for predicting social connectedness (vs. happiness). Finally, although most associations were similar for introverts and extraverts, our exploratory results suggest that introverts may experience greater boosts in social connectedness, relative to extraverts, when engaging in deeper conversations. This study provides compelling multimethod evidence supporting the link between more frequent and deeper social interactions and well-being.
The COVID-19 pandemic propelled many employees into remote work arrangements, and face-to-face meetings were quickly replaced with virtual meetings. This rapid uptick in the use of virtual meetings ...led to much popular press discussion of virtual meeting fatigue (i.e., "Zoom fatigue"), described as a feeling of being drained and lacking energy following a day of virtual meetings. In this study, we aimed to better understand how one salient feature of virtual meetings-the camera-impacts fatigue, which may affect outcomes during meetings (e.g., participant voice and engagement). We did so through the use of a 4-week within-person experience sampling field experiment where camera use was manipulated. Drawing from theory related to self-presentation, we propose and test a model where study condition (camera on versus off) was linked to daily feelings of fatigue; daily fatigue, in turn, was presumed to relate negatively to voice and engagement during virtual meetings. We further predict that gender and organizational tenure will moderate this relationship such that using a camera during virtual meetings will be more fatiguing for women and newer members of the organization. Results of 1,408 daily observations from 103 employees supported our proposed model, with supplemental analyses suggesting that fatigue affects same-day and next-day meeting performance. Given the anticipated prevalence of remote work even after the pandemic subsides, our study offers key insights for ongoing organizational best practices surrounding virtual meetings.
Much research in psychology relies on data from observational studies that traditionally do not allow for causal interpretation. However, a range of approaches in statistics and computational ...sciences have been developed to infer causality from correlational data. Based on conceptual and theoretical considerations on the integration of interventional and time-restrainment notions of causality, we set out to design and empirically test a new approach to identify potential causal factors in longitudinal correlational data. A principled and representative set of simulations and an illustrative application to identify early-life determinants of cognitive development in a large cohort study are presented. The simulation results illustrate the potential but also the limitations for discovering causal factors in observational data. In the illustrative application, plausible candidates for early-life determinants of cognitive abilities in 5-year-old children were identified. Based on these results, we discuss the possibilities of using exploratory causal discovery in psychological research but also highlight its limits and potential misuses and misinterpretations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).
Connecting with others makes people happier, but strangers in close proximity often ignore each other. Prior research (Epley & Schroeder, 2014) suggested this social disconnection stems from people ...misunderstanding how pleasant it would be to talk with strangers. Extending these prior results, in a field experiment with London-area train commuters, those assigned to talk with a stranger reported having a significantly more positive experience, and learning significantly more, than those assigned to a solitude or control condition. Commuters also expected a more positive experience if they talked to a stranger than in the solitude or control conditions. A second experiment explored why commuters nevertheless avoid conversation even when it is generally pleasant. Commuters predicted that trying to have a conversation would be less pleasant than actually having one because they anticipated that others would be uninterested in talking. These experiments clarify the precise aspects of social interaction that may be misunderstood. People may avoid pleasant conversations with strangers because of miscalibrated concerns about starting them.
Sociability as a disposition describes a tendency to affiliate with others (vs. be alone). Yet, we know relatively little about how much social behavior people engage in during a typical day. One ...challenge to documenting social behavior tendencies is the broad number of channels over which socializing can occur, both in-person and through digital media. To examine individual differences in everyday social behavior patterns, here we used smartphone-based mobile sensing methods (MSMs) in four studies (total N = 926) to collect real-world data about young adults' social behaviors across four communication channels: conversations, phone calls, text messages, and use of messaging and social media applications. To examine individual differences, we first focused on establishing between-person variability in daily social behavior, examining stability of and relationships among daily sensed social behavior tendencies. To explore factors that may explain the observed individual differences in sensed social behavior, we then expanded our focus to include other time estimates (e.g., times of the day, days of the week) and personality traits. In doing so, we present the first large-scale descriptive portrait of behavioral sociability patterns, characterizing the degree to which young adults engaged in social behaviors and mapping these behaviors onto self-reported personality dispositions. Our discussion focuses on how the observed sociability patterns compare to previous research on young adults' social behavior. We conclude by pointing to areas for future research aimed at understanding sociability using mobile sensing and other naturalistic observation methods for the assessment of social behavior.
Summary Neonatal infections are estimated to account for a quarter of the 2·8 million annual neonatal deaths, as well as approximately 3% of all disability-adjusted life-years. Despite this burden, ...few data are available on incidence, aetiology, and outcomes, particularly regarding impairment. We aimed to develop guidelines for improved scientific reporting of observational neonatal infection studies, to increase comparability and to strengthen research in this area. This checklist, Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology for Newborn Infection (STROBE- NI), is an extension of the STROBE (Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology) statement. STROBE-NI was developed following systematic reviews of published literature (1996–2015), compilation of more than 130 potential reporting recommendations, and circulation of a survey to relevant professionals worldwide, eliciting responses from 147 professionals from 37 countries. An international consensus meeting of 18 participants (with expertise in infectious diseases, neonatology, microbiology, epidemiology, and statistics) identified priority recommendations for reporting, additional to the STROBE statement. Implementation of these STROBE-NI recommendations, and linked checklist, aims to improve scientific reporting of neonatal infection studies, increasing data utility and allowing meta-analyses and pathogen-specific burden estimates to inform global policy and new interventions, including maternal vaccines.
The purpose of the present meta-analysis was to investigate the strength of the association between parent-reported and observed parenting, and to investigate which specific characteristics of ...participants, questionnaires, or observational procedures moderate this association. A systematic search of relevant peer-reviewed articles published between January 2000 and December 2014 yielded 36 articles (N = 8,510) and 89 effect sizes. Results from a 3-level random-effects meta-analysis demonstrated a weak, yet significant, overall association of r = .17 between parent-reported and observed parenting. The magnitude of the effect size depended on questionnaire length (larger effect for more items) and the type of parenting investigated (largest effects for negative parent behaviors, next largest effects for positive parent behaviors, and smallest effect for controlling parent behaviors). In conclusion, this study shows that the strength of the association between parent-reported and observed parenting is small but significant.
Public Significance Statement
Parenting is often measured using self-reports or observations. This study has shown that the association between parenting measured through self-report and through observation is small, but significant. The association is larger for negative and positive parenting compared with controlling parenting and the association is larger for studies using questionnaires with more items.
Instrumental variable methods are an underutilized tool to enhance causal inference in psychology. By way of incorporating predictors of the predictors (called "instruments" in the econometrics ...literature) into the model, instrumental variable regression (IVR) is able to draw causal inferences of a predictor on an outcome. We show that by regressing the outcome y on the predictors x and the predictors on the instruments, and modeling correlated disturbance terms between the predictor and outcome, causal inferences can be drawn on y on x if the IVR model cannot be rejected in a structural equation framework. We provide a tutorial on how to apply this model using ML estimation as implemented in structural equation modeling (SEM) software. We additionally provide code to identify instruments given a theoretical model, to select the best subset of instruments when more than necessary are available, and we guide researchers on how to apply this model using SEM. Finally, we demonstrate how the IVR model can be estimated using a number of estimators developed in econometrics (e.g., 2-stage least squares regression) and point out that the latter is simply a multistage SEM estimator of the IVR model.
Translational Abstract
Causal inferences can be drawn on a target multiple regression model by bringing in predictors of the predictors into the model (instruments in econometrics terminology), and estimating the instrumental variables regression (IVR) model using maximum likelihood (ML) as implemented in structural equation modeling (SEM) software. Alternatively, the IVR model can be estimated using a number of estimators developed in econometrics (e.g., two-stage least squares regression 2SLS). Causal inferences can be drawn on the target regression model if the IVR model cannot be rejected. Given a theoretical model, we provide code to identify instruments, to select the best subset of instruments when more than necessary are available, and to guide researchers on how to apply this model using SEM software.
Qualitative content analysis as described in published literature shows conflicting opinions and unsolved issues regarding meaning and use of concepts, procedures and interpretation. This paper ...provides an overview of important concepts (manifest and latent content, unit of analysis, meaning unit, condensation, abstraction, content area, code, category and theme) related to qualitative content analysis; illustrates the use of concepts related to the research procedure; and proposes measures to achieve trustworthiness (credibility, dependability and transferability) throughout the steps of the research procedure. Interpretation in qualitative content analysis is discussed in light of Watzlawick et al.’s Pragmatics of Human Communication. A Study of Interactional Patterns, Pathologies and Paradoxes. W.W. Norton & Company, New York, London theory of communication.
Much medical research is observational. The reporting of observational studies is often of insufficient quality. Poor reporting hampers the assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of a study and ...the generalizability of its results. Taking into account empirical evidence and theoretical considerations, a group of methodologists, researchers, and editors developed the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) recommendations to improve the quality of reporting of observational studies. The STROBE Statement consists of a checklist of 22 items, which relate to the title, abstract, introduction, methods, results, and discussion sections of articles. Eighteen items are common to cohort studies, case-control studies, and cross-sectional studies, and 4 are specific to each of the 3 study designs. The STROBE Statement provides guidance to authors about how to improve the reporting of observational studies and facilitates critical appraisal and interpretation of studies by reviewers, journal editors, and readers. This explanatory and elaboration document is intended to enhance the use, understanding, and dissemination of the STROBE Statement. The meaning and rationale for each checklist item are presented. For each item, 1 or several published examples and, where possible, references to relevant empirical studies and methodological literature are provided. Examples of useful flow diagrams are also included. The STROBE Statement, this document, and the associated Web site (www.strobe-statement.org) should be helpful resources to improve reporting of observational research.
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