Effects of paraben toxicity,
, endocrine-disruption properties, are in the focus of researchers for decades, but still – they are a hot subject of debate. Parabens are aliphatic esters of
...-hydroxybenzoic acid, which are widely used as antimicrobial agents for the preservation of cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and foods. Mostly used parabens are methyl-, ethyl-, propyl- and butylparaben. Although the toxicity of parabens is reported in animals and in
studies, it cannot be taken for granted when discussing hazards for human health due to an unrealistic exposure -safety profile. Many studies have demonstrated that parabens are non-teratogenic, non-mutagenic, non-carcinogenic and the real evidence for their toxicity in humans has not been established. For now, methyl-, ethyl- and propylparaben are considered safe for use in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals within the recommended range of doses. Regarding alternatives for parabens, a variety of approaches have been proposed, but every substitute would need to be tested rigorously for toxicity and safety.
•Comprehensive study on packaging used in milk products from Spanish markets.•Concentration differences were found depending on the type of packaging.•Levels found were far below the specific ...migration limits established by the EU.•Cumulative hazard index (HI < 1) did not represent a population health risk.•In general, the results found were lower than those reported in other countries.
A comprehensive study on packaging used in commercially available milk products from Spanish markets has been presented. Concentrations of four phthalates, seven parabens and BPA were determined in forty-two milk products. Eleven brands and five types of packaging (metallic aluminium bag, carton, high-density polyethylene, metal pail and polyethylene terephthalate) were included in the study. BPA showed the lowest concentrations (8.3 pg/g f.w.), far below those of phthalates (6431 pg/g f.w.) and parabens (6234 pg/g f.w.). Metallic aluminium bags were the least migrating packaging (considering plasticisers and monomers) followed by HDPE bottles, in the case of phthalates. Parabens showed their highest concentrations for fresh-milk samples. Levels found were far below the specific migration limits established by the EU and the cumulative hazard index was lower than 1, indicating that adverse health effects were not expected. In general, the results found in Spanish samples were lower than those reported in other countries.
Parabens are used as a preservative in several consumer products including cosmetics, personal care products, and medicinal products. These chemicals have been suspected for estrogenicity and ...potential adverse endocrine outcomes in humans. For the first time, exposure profiles and potential sources of major parabens are investigated for a nationally representative population of children and adolescents of Korea. In addition, major determinants of urinary paraben levels were identified. For this purpose, the children, and adolescents (n = 2355, 3–18 years of age) who participated in the Korean National Environmental Health Survey cycle 3 (2015–2017) were studied. Adjusted multiple linear regression models were employed to investigate the relationships of several potential demographic and behavioral determinants of exposure, with the urinary levels of three parabens; methyl, ethyl, and propyl paraben. Methyl and propyl paraben levels of the Korean children and adolescents were comparable to those of the US, but the high exposure group (95th percentile) showed much higher levels of exposure. Moreover, urinary ethyl paraben levels are always higher than those of other countries. The uses of personal care products including liquid soaps, fragrance products, nail polish, or antiseptic products were significantly associated with urinary paraben levels. In addition, dietary sources such as fast food and canned food consumption were identified as major contributors to ethyl paraben levels. For methyl and propyl parabens, the use of fever medications and ointments were identified as major determinants of the exposure, especially among the younger children of 3–5 years of age. These observations are related to the Korean regulations that permit the use of the parabens as preservatives in foods and medications. The findings demonstrate that the exposure profile of parabens among Korean children are unique, and mitigation efforts for some parabens are required in Korea. Further studies are warranted to confirm the exposure sources of parabens and to develop mitigation measures among Korean children and adolescents.
•Paraben exposure was investigated among representative Korean children.•Urinary ethyl paraben levels of Korean children were higher than in other countries.•Food consumption was identified as a major contributor for ethyl parabens.•The use of medications was related to higher methyl and propyl paraben levels.
Parabens are used as a preservative substance in a wide range of man-made products causing deleterious effects on aquatic organisms and therefore, the concern of their effects to aquatic organisms ...has been increased. In this study, acute toxicity of methylparaben (MeP), ethylparaben (EtP), and propylparaben (PrP) was assessed in the marine copepod Tigriopus japonicus. The acute toxicity assessment resulted in the median lethal concentration (LC50) values of MeP, EtP, and PrP were 29,754, 11,659, and 113 μg/L, respectively, for male and 38,183, 15,371, and 357 μg/L, respectively, for female, indicating the strongest toxicity of PrP, compared to MeP and EtP and the higher sensitivity of males compared to females. Developmental retardation and reproduction rate were also measured under chronic exposure. Furthermore, significant alteration in sex ratio was shown in PrP-exposed group, indicating PrP would have feminization effect in T. japonicus. Here we report different toxicity of three types of parabens and also shows potential estrogenic effects of PrP in T. japonicus.
•LC50 values of MeP, EtP, and PrP were 29754, 11659, and 113 μg/L for male.•LC50 values of MeP, EtP, and PrP were 38183, 15371, and 357 μg/L for female.•The strongest toxicity was shown in PrP-exposed groups, compared to MeP and EtP.•Males showed the higher sensitivity compared to females.•Significant alteration in sex ratio was shown in PrP-exposed group in T. japonicus.
Abstract
Parabens are substances with antifungal and antibacterial properties, suspected to be endocrine disruptors and widely used as preservatives in cosmetics. In this case, exposure to these ...compounds is mainly dermal and interactions may occur with skin components including cutaneous mycobiota. In this work, we have explored the in vitro reciprocal interactions between three parabens (methylparaben, ethylparaben, and propylparaben) and yeasts from the human cutaneous mycobiota (Candida parapsilosis, Cryptococcus uniguttulatus, and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa) by studying the effect of these parabens on fungal growth and the fungal ability to metabolize the tested compounds. Our results showed that, at the tested concentrations, the growth of three strains of C. parapsilosis was not influenced by the presence of parabens. Whereas, using the same parabens concentrations, growth of C. uniguttulatus and R. mucilaginosa was completely inhibited by ethylparaben since the first day of contact, whereas these same fungi were not sensitive to the two other parabens, even after seven days of incubation. The presence of a lamellar wall in these basidiomycete fungi as well as the physico-chemical properties of ethylparaben could explain this selective inhibition. Additionally, C. parapsilosis and R. mucilaginosa degraded 90% to 100% of propylparaben after seven days of incubation but had no effect on the other tested parabens. Thus, their enzymes seem to only degrade long chain parabens. In the same conditions, C. uniguttulatus did not degrade any paraben. This inability may be due to the absence of fungal enzymes able to degrade parabens or to the possible inaccessibility of intracellular enzymes due to the polysaccharide capsule. Our work has shown that parabens can act differently from one fungus to another within the cutaneous mycobiota. These preliminary results have evidenced that in vitro parabens, contained in cosmetic products, could be involved in the occurrence of a state of dysbiosis. The tested yeasts from the cutaneous mycobiota can also be involved in the degradation of parabens and thereby reduce, according to the produced metabolites and their activities, the risk of endocrine disruption they can induce.
In vitro interactions between parabens and skin mycobiota yeasts : ethylparaben inhibits growth of some of Cryptococcus uniguttulatus and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa. Furthermore, Candida parapsilosis and R. mucilaginosa degrade propylparaben.
Personal care products (PCPs) are considered as a major source of paraben exposure; however, the dietary contribution is not well known. We compared the urinary levels of methyl-, ethyl-, and ...propyl-paraben (MeP, EtP, and PrP), and investigated their associations with fasting status and contacts with other potential exposure sources among Korea and the US adult women.
A group of fasting, non-pregnant adult women (n = 469) was recruited from Seoul, Ansan/Incheon, and Jeju, Korea in 2015–2016, and their urine was measured for parabens. Non-fasting Korean women of matching age (25–45 years) were chosen from the Korean National Environmental Health Survey (KoNEHS) Cycle 3 (n = 579). For the US women, both fasting (n = 154) and non-fasting (n = 201) females were chosen from the NHANES 2015–2016 participants.
In fasting Korean women, the urinary MeP, EtP, and PrP concentrations (median) were measured at 47.30, 17.90, and 2.30 ng/mL, respectively. Urinary EtP and PrP levels in fasting Korean women were significantly lower than those in non-fasting women (EtP and PrP median of 26.40 and 3.57 ng/mL). On average, the difference in urinary EtP levels by fasting status was greater among the highly exposed groups. In the US population, EtP levels were significantly lower (median ranged 1.55–1.80 ng/mL depending on fasting status), but MeP levels were higher (67.90–84.35 ng/mL) than those of the Korean population. When only fasting women were considered, the median EtP levels of Korean women were 11.5-fold greater than those of US women, suggesting that the non-dietary contributions of EtP exposure could not be ignored among Korean women. Regardless of fasting status, MeP and PrP were significantly correlated, and their urinary levels in fasting Korean women were correlated with the use of several personal care products. The major dietary and non-dietary sources that may explain EtP exposure in Korean women warrant further investigation.
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•Urinary EtP levels of Korean women were >10 fold higher than US women.•Fasting Korean women showed significantly lower EtP levels than non-fasting women.•Fasting status did not alter urinary paraben levels in US women.•MeP & PrP levels were correlated with use of certain personal care products in Korea.•Non-dietary sources of EtP exposure in Korean women could not be ignored.
Parabens, esters of para-hydroxybenzoic acid, are commonly used as antimicrobial preservatives in cosmetics and personal care products. Although several studies report exposure of humans to parabens ...in Western countries, little is known about exposure of humans to parabens in Asian countries. In this study, we determined concentrations of six parabens in spot urine samples collected from nine countries and estimated daily intakes (DI) and potential health risks of parabens. Ethyl-paraben, methyl-paraben, and propyl-paraben were detected frequently at 100, 98.0, and 80.3%, respectively, with representative median concentrations of 0.68, 7.02, and 1.21 ng/mL, respectively, for all nine countries. Urine samples from females (total median concentration: 32.3 ng/mL) contained significantly higher concentrations of parabens than did those from males (5.46 ng/mL). Urine samples from Korea (total median paraben concentration: 227 ng/mL) had the highest concentrations, which were one to two orders of magnitude higher than those found in other countries (3.67–29.1 ng/mL). The estimated DI of parabens (on the basis of concentrations measured in urine) varied widely, and several samples had propyl-paraben exposures above the acceptable DI. Our results suggest that paraben exposure is ubiquitous in Asian countries, and further assessment of potential health risk of these chemicals is needed.
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•Six parabens were analyzed in 300 urine samples from nine countries.•Methyl-, ethyl- and propyl-parabens were found frequently and the highest levels were from Korea.•Estimated daily intake of propyl-paraben in some samples exceeded the reference value.
Parabens are used extensively in personal care products; however, their estrogenic properties have raised concern over risks to human health. High levels of total parabens, mainly as conjugates, have ...been reported in human plasma/serum, with limited data on native parabens. Our objective was to assess and link plasma concentrations of native common parabens to self-reported use of personal care products in women from the general population. The information was obtained from an extensive questionnaire on diet and lifestyle previously answered by the women in the NOWAC study. Plasma samples from 332 individuals were extracted and cleaned up by automated solid phase extraction and analyzed by ultra high performance liquid chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Native methyl paraben dominated and was detected in 63% of the samples, with a median level of 9.4 ng/ml. Ethyl paraben (median < 3 ng/ml) and propyl paraben (median < 2 ng/ml) were detected in 22 and 29%, respectively. Butyl and benzyl parabens were not detected. For the first time, elevated levels of native parabens are reported in women from the general population. The concentrations were significantly associated with the use of skin lotions, indicating that frequent (daily or more) use maintain elevated concentrations despite the parabens short half-lives. These findings clearly emphasize the need to study potential health effects in the general population.
Amounts of bisphenol A (BPA), 4-cumylphenol (CP) and 5 parabens – methylparaben (MP), ethylparaben (EP), propylparaben (PP), butylparaben (BP) and benzylparaben (BzP) in Greater Poland Voivodeship's ...surface waters are reported. The water samples were collected from selected 15 locations in 2015–2016 at seven different time points: in March, June, August, and October 2015 and March, June, and September 2016. MP was found in every tested sample with typical concentration at several dozen nanograms per liter and the highest level almost 1600 ng L−1 in a sample collected from the Warta River in October 2015. The other four parabens were determined at considerably lower concentrations than MP at levels not exceeding 100 ng L−1 with PP found at the highest and BzP at the lowest levels. BPA was determined at similar concentration level to parabens – between 5 ng L−1 and 95 ng L−1 and CP was found only in a limited number of samples. Noticeable seasonal changes of paraben concentrations were found showing that for these compounds the pollutant release factor dominates both the biodegradation factor and the water volume factor. These seasonal changes were not observed for BPA and CP. Out of all determined parabens only MP was found at considerably higher concentrations than BPA. However, MP's endocrine properties are much lower than those of BPA posing a lower environmental impact potential than BPA. Influence of other (more endocrine disrupting) parabens is also relatively weak in comparison to BPA due to their considerably lower concentrations in the environment.
•5 parabens, bisphenol A and cumylphenol were determined by SPE and LC-MS/MS.•15 Polish rivers and lakes were analyzed for 7 endocrine disruptors during 18 months.•Methyl-, ethyl-, propylparaben and bisphenol A were found in every tested sample.•Cumylphenol was determined only in a few samples.•The results were compared with over a dozen other studies.
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