Depth of processing vocabulary has been the subject of heated discussion among vocabulary researchers. Yet, current literature lacks research comparing different tasks to investigate the acquisition ...of vocabulary knowledge among adult learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). To fill the gap, we designed five task-based groups based on Technique Feature Analysis (TFA) as a framework to predict the effectiveness of different vocabulary learning tasks with similar or different TFA rankings on L2 vocabulary knowledge gain. The participants were 130 EFL learners (mean age = 21.7, female 61.5%) randomly assigned to the vocabulary learning tasks: reading and multiple-choice items (TFA = 6), reading and choosing definitions (TFA = 6), reading and fill-in-the-blanks (TFA = 7), reading and rewording the sentences (TFA = 6) and composition writing (TFA = 8). The results of the study revealed that tasks with the same TFA scores led to similar vocabulary knowledge gains. While predictions of the TFA are partially supported, composition writing and sentence rewording tasks supersede other tasks in terms of their effectiveness in vocabulary acquisition.
Purpose: This study examines the expressive language and speech of twins, relative to singletons, at 3 and 5 years, with the aim of determining if a twinning effect occurs during this developmental ...period. The possibility of twins outgrowing a twinning effect was investigated. Method: A weighted population-based sample of 185 twins and 1,309 closely spaced singletons who participated in the Growing Up in Ireland study was analyzed. Their development was compared using a standardized expressive vocabulary assessment and parent interview at 3 and 5 years as well as teacher reports at 5 years. Causal steps mediation analyses were subsequently conducted to determine if gestation and birth weight mediated twin-singleton differences in expressive vocabulary development. Results: Twins' expressive vocabulary scores were slightly lower than those of singletons at 3 years, but there was no significant difference at 5 years. More parents of twins reported "a little" concern about their child's expressive language and speech skills at 3 years, although there was no significant twin--singleton difference 2 years later. Teachers' ratings of twins' and singletons' expressive language and speech skills at 5 years were comparable. Shorter gestations and lower birth weights mediated twins' lower expressive vocabulary scores at 3 years. Conclusions: A very small twinning effect on expressive vocabulary development exists at 3 years and is outgrown by 5 years. Twins born after shorter gestations or at a lower birth weight are at an increased risk of having less developed expressive vocabulary skills at 3 years.
The importance of vocabulary is stressed as a central aspect of language learning. The aim of this investigation1 was to study how lexical input from a textbook and use of individual vocabulary ...notebooks affected Swedish upper secondary school students’ vocabulary acquisition by answering the three following research questions: What frequency levels are represented in the vocabulary taught in the textbook? To what extent does the productive vocabulary knowledge of the group, as measured by the Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT), change after exposure to the textbook? To what extent did the students benefit from the vocabulary notebooks? Firstly, a corpus of texts from the textbook was created and analysed to establish the frequency levels of the vocabulary in the corpus. Laufer and Nation’s Vocabulary Levels Test was then used to establish the group’s productive vocabulary knowledge. Lastly, the effectiveness of the vocabulary notebook was examined. The results indicate that the particular textbook was well-suited in terms of frequency levels and the students’ knowledge of K3 words improved, but the vocabulary notebook was not found to be effective.
Various studies have shown that bilingual children score lower than their monolingual peers on standardized receptive vocabulary tests. This study investigates if this effect is moderated by language ...distance. Dutch receptive vocabulary was tested with the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT). The impact of cross-language distance was examined by comparing bilingual groups with a small (Close; n = 165) and a large between-language distance (Distant; n = 108) with monolingual controls (n = 39). As a group, the bilinguals scored lower on Dutch receptive vocabulary than the monolinguals. The bilingual Distant group had lower receptive vocabulary outcomes than the bilingual Close and monolingual groups. No difference emerged between the monolinguals and the bilingual Close group. It can be concluded that bilingual children whose languages provide ample opportunities for transfer and sharing knowledge do not have any receptive vocabulary delays. The findings underscore that bilingual children cannot be treated as a homogeneous group and are important for determining which bilingual children are at risk of low vocabulary outcomes.
Numerous studies suggest that bilinguals demonstrate smaller vocabularies than monolinguals, and that bilinguals' breadth of vocabulary knowledge - both expressive and receptive - is linked to input ...frequencies in each language e.g. Hoff, E., S. Welsh, S. Place, and K. Ribot. 2014. "Properties of Dual Language Input That Shape Bilingual Development and Properties of Environments That Shape Dual Language Input." In Input and Experience in Bilingual Development, edited by T. Grüter, and J. Paradis, Vol. 13, 119-140. Amserdam: John Benjamins. However, relatively little is known about the quality of bilinguals' knowledge of the words they do know (e.g. their understanding of how words relate to each other semantically) and how input frequencies influence that knowledge. Using the Cognitive Abilities Tasks - 4 (CAT-4), this study explored the potential links between three types of input sources - home language exposure, self-reported rates of language use in general, and language use with friends - and bilinguals' performance on two types of vocabulary tests in both Welsh and English: verbal analogy and verbal categorisation. Results revealed similar performance across-the-board in relation to their knowledge of English vocabulary, regardless of their exposure to and use of Welsh and/or English in general and with friends, but their knowledge of the links between words in Welsh was related to home language exposure and rates of language use. The implications and application of these results in practice are discussed.
Purpose: Children with typical development vary in how much experience they need to learn words. This could be due to differences in the amount of information encoded during periods of input, ...consolidated between periods of input, or both. Our primary purpose is to identify whether encoding, consolidation, or both, drive individual differences in the slow-mapping process. Method: Four- to 6-year-old children (N = 43) were trained on nine form-referent pairs across consecutive days. Children's ability to name referents was assessed at the beginning and end of each session. Word learning was assessed 1 month after training to determine long-term retention. Results: Children with varying language knowledge and skills differed in their ability to encode words. Specifically, children varied in the number of words learned and the phonological precision of word forms at the end of the initial training session. Children demonstrated similarities in re-encoding in that they refined representations at a similar rate during subsequent sessions. Children did not differ in their ability to consolidate words between sessions, or in their ability to retain words over the 1-month delay. Conclusions: The amount of experience children need to learn words is primarily driven by the amount of information encoded during the initial experience. When provided with high-quality instruction, children demonstrate a similar ability to consolidate and retain words. Critically, word learning instruction in educational settings must include repeated explicit instruction with the same words to support learning in children with typical development and varying language skills.
After more than 35 years, Hambrick and Mason’s upper echelons theory (UET) stands as one of the most influential perspectives in management research. However, as the literature and its attendant ...reviews have become more numerous and specialized, discussion of the fundamental conceptual and methodological critiques leveled against research utilizing the UET perspective has grown fragmented. As such, the first aim of the present review is to identify and synthesize a set of common critiques levied against UET research. In doing so, we unpack important nuance within each critique while establishing a common vocabulary to facilitate greater consistency in how these critiques are discussed by scholars, editors, and reviewers. Next, we analyze the past decade of UET research (i.e., empirical and conceptual articles) to provide a progress report on the state of the literature as it pertains to each critique. Based on this analysis, we issue a “verdict,” providing clear guidance on what issues still need to be resolved and offering clear recommendations for UET scholars moving forward. Finally, we close by taking stock of how our recommendations position UET scholars to embrace the task of providing impactful insights on emerging challenges facing top executives.
Spaced repetition seems to play a significant role in the learning and retention of words in foreign language settings. This experimental study investigated the impact of expanding and equal spacing ...conditions on receptive and productive English vocabulary retrieval. The participants consisted of 63 pre-intermediate EFL learners in three intact classes randomly assigned to one control and two experimental groups. A Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) was used to select 20 unknown word pairs (each word and its synonym) for teaching purposes and check the effects of the treatments at the end of the study. The word pairs were later divided into two 10-item A and B sets because of the counterbalanced design of the study. The first experimental group studied set A under an equally spaced condition (2-2-2) and set B under an expanding spaced condition (0-1-5) with the same absolute spacing value. The second experimental group studied them in the reverse order, thus counterbalancing the effect of encounter order. The control group studied the target items under the no-spacing or massed condition (0-0-0). The statistical analyses of the three groups’ posttest scores indicated that all the three groups had improved their receptive and productive vocabulary retrieval. However, an equally spaced schedule had led to a significantly higher mean score only on the receptive items of the posttest and, therefore, better vocabulary retrieval. Therefore, it is suggested that EFL teachers consider spacing in general and the equal spacing condition in particular as important elements in facilitating both receptive and productive vocabulary learning.
Purpose: Narrative skill represents a higher-level linguistic skill that shows incremental development in the preschool years. During these years, there are considerable individual differences in ...this skill, with some children being highly skilled narrators (i.e., precocious) relative to peers of their age. In this study, we explored the contribution of three lower-level language skills to a range of narrative abilities, from children performing below expected levels for their age to those performing much higher than the expected levels for their age. We speculated that individual differences in lower-level skills would contribute meaningfully to variability in narrative skills. Method: Using a sample of 336 children between 3 and 6 years of age (M = 4.27 years, SD = 0.65), both multiple regression and quantile regression approaches were used to explore how vocabulary, grammar, and phonological awareness account for variance in children's "narrative ability index" (NAI), an index of how children scored on the Narrative Assessment Protocol--Second Edition relative to the expected performance for their age. Results: Multiple regression results indicated that lower-level language skills explained a significant amount of variance (approximately 13%) in children's NAI scores. Quantile regression results indicated that phonological awareness and vocabulary accounted for significant variance in children's NAI scores at lower quantiles. At the median quantile, vocabulary and grammar accounted for significant variance in children's NAI scores. For precocious narrators, only vocabulary accounted for a significant amount of variance in children's NAI scores. Conclusion: Results indicate that lower-level language skills work in conjunction to support narrative skills at different ability levels, improving understanding of how lower-level language skills contribute across a spectrum of higher-level linguistic abilities.
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