Augmenting reality via head-mounted displays (HMD-AR) is an emerging technology in education. The interactivity provided by HMD-AR devices is particularly promising for learning, but presents a ...challenge to human activity recognition, especially with children. Recent technological advances regarding speech and gesture recognition concerning Microsoft’s HoloLens 2 may address this prevailing issue. In a within-subjects study with 47 elementary school children (2nd to 6th grade), we examined the usability of the HoloLens 2 using a standardized tutorial on multimodal interaction in AR. The overall system usability was rated “good”. However, several behavioral metrics indicated that specific interaction modes differed in their efficiency. The results are of major importance for the development of learning applications in HMD-AR as they partially deviate from previous findings. In particular, the well-functioning recognition of children’s voice commands that we observed represents a novelty. Furthermore, we found different interaction preferences in HMD-AR among the children. We also found the use of HMD-AR to have a positive effect on children’s activity-related achievement emotions. Overall, our findings can serve as a basis for determining general requirements, possibilities, and limitations of the implementation of educational HMD-AR environments in elementary school classrooms.
Multimedia learning theories suggest presenting associated pieces of information in spatial and temporal contiguity. New technologies like Augmented Reality allow for realizing these principles in ...science laboratory courses by presenting virtual real-time information during hands-on experimentation. Spatial integration can be achieved by pinning virtual representations of measurement data to corresponding real components. In the present study, an Augmented Reality-based presentation format was realized via a head-mounted display and contrasted to a separate display, which provided a well-arranged data matrix in spatial distance to the real components and was therefore expected to result in a spatial split-attention effect. Two groups of engineering students (
= 107; Augmented Reality vs. separate display) performed six experiments exploring fundamental laws of electric circuits. Cognitive load and conceptual knowledge acquisition were assessed as main outcome variables. In contrast to our hypotheses and previous findings, the Augmented Reality group did not report lower extraneous load and the separate display group showed higher learning gains. The pre- and posttest assessing conceptual knowledge were monitored by eye tracking. Results indicate that the condition affected the visual relevancy of circuit diagrams to final problem completion. The unexpected reverse effects could be traced back to emphasizing coherence formation processes regarding multiple measurements.
Cognitive load theory is considered universally applicable to all kinds of learning scenarios. However, instead of a universal method for measuring cognitive load that suits different learning ...contexts or target groups, there is a great variety of assessment approaches. Particularly common are subjective rating scales, which even allow for measuring the three assumed types of cognitive load in a differentiated way. Although these scales have been proven to be effective for various learning tasks, they might not be an optimal fit for the learning demands of specific complex environments such as technology-enhanced STEM laboratory courses. The aim of this research was therefore to examine and compare the existing rating scales in terms of validity for this learning context and to identify options for adaptation, if necessary. For the present study, the two most common subjective rating scales that are known to differentiate between load types (the cognitive load scale by Leppink et al. and the naïve rating scale by Klepsch et al.) were slightly adapted to the context of learning through structured hands-on experimentation where elements such as measurement data, experimental setups, and experimental tasks affect knowledge acquisition.
N
= 95 engineering students performed six experiments examining basic electric circuits where they had to explore fundamental relationships between physical quantities based on the observed data. Immediately after the experimentation, the students answered both adapted scales. Various indicators of validity, which considered the scales’ internal structure and their relation to variables such as group allocation as participants were randomly assigned to two conditions with a contrasting spatial arrangement of the measurement data, were analyzed. For the given dataset, the intended three-factorial structure could not be confirmed, and most of the a priori-defined subscales showed insufficient internal consistency. A multitrait–multimethod analysis suggests convergent and discriminant evidence between the scales which could not be confirmed sufficiently. The two contrasted experimental conditions were expected to result in different ratings for the extraneous load, which was solely detected by one adapted scale. As a further step, two new scales were assembled based on the overall item pool and the given dataset. They revealed a three-factorial structure in accordance with the three types of load and seemed to be promising new tools, although their subscales for extraneous load still suffer from low reliability scores.
Background
Representational competence is commonly considered a prerequisite for the acquisition of conceptual knowledge, yet little exploration has been undertaken into the relation between these ...two constructs. Using an assessment instrument of representational competence with vector fields that functions without confounding topical context, we examined its relation with
N
= 515 undergraduates’ conceptual knowledge about electromagnetism.
Results
Applying latent variable modeling, we found that students’ representational competence and conceptual knowledge are related yet clearly distinguishable constructs (manifest correlation:
r
= .54; latent correlation:
r
= .71). The relation was weaker for female than for male students, which could not be explained by measurement differences between the two groups. There were several students with high representational competence and low conceptual knowledge, but only few students with low representational competence and high conceptual knowledge.
Conclusions
These results support the assumption that representational competence is a prerequisite, yet insufficient condition for the acquisition of conceptual knowledge. We provide suggestions for supporting learners in building representational competence, and particularly female learners in utilizing their representational competence to build conceptual knowledge.
Learning with hands‐on experiments can be supported by providing essential information virtually during lab work. Augmented reality (AR) appears especially suitable for presenting information during ...experimentation, as it can be used to integrate both physical and virtual lab work. Virtual information can be displayed in close spatial proximity to the correspondent components in the experimentation environment, thereby ensuring a basic design principle for multimedia instruction: the spatial contiguity principle. The latter is assumed to reduce learners' extraneous cognitive load and foster generative processing, which supports conceptual knowledge acquisition. For the present study, a tablet‐based AR application has been developed to support learning from hands‐on experiments in physics education. Real‐time measurement data were displayed directly above the components of electric circuits, which were constructed by the learners during lab work. In a two group pretest–posttest design, we compared university students' (N = 50) perceived cognitive load and conceptual knowledge gain for both the AR‐supported and a matching non‐AR learning environment. Whereas participants in both conditions gave comparable ratings for cognitive load, learning gains in conceptual knowledge were only detectable for the AR‐supported lab work.
Multiple external representations (MERs) play an important role in the learning field of mathematics. Whereas the cognitive theory of multimedia learning and the integrative text and picture ...comprehension model assume that the heterogeneous combination of symbolic and analogous representations fosters learning; the design, functions, and tasks framework holds that learning benefits depend on the specific functions of MERs. The current paper describes a conceptual replication study of one of the few studies comparing single representations, heterogeneous, and homogeneous MERs in the context of mathematics learning. In a balanced incomplete block design, the participants were provided single representations (a graphic, text, or formula) or a heterogeneous (e.g., text + graphic) or homogeneous (text + formula) combination of these to solve linear system of equations problems. In accordance with previous research, performance was superior in conditions providing MERs compared to single‐representation conditions. Moreover, heterogeneous MERs led to time savings over homogeneous MERs which triggered an increase in cognitive load. Contrary to previous research, text was the least fixated representation whereas the graphical representation proved to be most beneficial. With regard to practical implications, experts should be fostered through more challenging homogeneous MERs whereas novices should be supported through the accessible graphic contained in heterogeneous MERs.
Lay Description
What is already known about this topic
Providing multiple instead of single representations can foster mathematics learning.
However, some combinations of representations hamper the performance of novice learners.
The classical multimedia view explains the positive effect of combining text with picture.
Recent research suggests the combination of multiple symbolic representations (text and formula).
What this paper adds
The study replicated the effect of multiple symbolic representations for equation solving.
In contrast to former research, each representation (text, formula, and graphic) was functionally equivalent.
Tasks with differently coded representations were solved faster and with less mental effort.
Gaze behavior indicated that students mostly used the graphical representation.
Implications for practice and/or policy
Beginners should be supported with a graphic when solving equations.
Experts should be challenged with a combination of symbolic representations to benefit the most.
Background
New methods are constantly being developed to adapt cognitive load measurement to different contexts. However, research on middle childhood students' cognitive load measurement is rare. ...Research indicates that the three cognitive load dimensions (intrinsic, extraneous, and germane) can be measured well in adults and teenagers using differentiated subjective rating instruments. Moreover, digital ink recorded by smartpens could serve as an indicator for cognitive load in adults.
Aims
With the present research, we aimed at investigating the relation between subjective cognitive load ratings, velocity and pressure measures recorded with a smartpen, and performance in standardized sketching tasks in middle childhood students.
Sample
Thirty‐six children (age 7–12) participated at the university's laboratory.
Methods
The children performed two standardized sketching tasks, each in two versions. The induced intrinsic cognitive load or the extraneous cognitive load was varied between the versions. Digital ink was recorded while the children drew with a smartpen on real paper and after each task, they were asked to report their perceived intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load using a newly developed 5‐item scale.
Results
Results indicated that cognitive load ratings as well as velocity and pressure measures were substantially related to the induced cognitive load and to performance in both sketching tasks. However, cognitive load ratings and smartpen measures were not substantially related.
Conclusions
Both subjective rating and digital ink hold potential for cognitive load and performance measurement. However, it is questionable whether they measure the exact same constructs.
Empirical research has shown that augmented reality (AR) has the potential to promote learning in different contexts. In particular, this has been shown for AR-supported physics experiments, where ...virtual elements (e.g., measurement data) were integrated into the learners’ visual reality in real time: compared to traditional experimentation, AR reduced cognitive load and promoted conceptual learning. Drawing upon previous work from this column, we present an AR-supported experiment on simple electrical circuits that allows for real-time visualization including highlighting of electrical circuit schematics using either smartglasses or tablet computers. The experiment addresses students in introductory physics education and holds potential to provide visual assistance for complex electrical circuits in secondary or higher physics education.
Digital media have become increasingly established in learning contexts in recent decades, and it seems impossible to imagine education without them, especially in recent years. Various technological ...advances can be observed, such as developments in virtual reality and augmented reality. To give learners a realistic impression of the virtual world, as many sensory impressions as possible should be addressed. However, current developments have mainly addressed the visual and auditory modalities, which make up two of the five human senses. Research and developments for the use of the other senses are being made but at this stage they are not yet ready for mass use. Especially the sense of touch based on skin as the largest human sensory organ or tactile and haptic perception seem to be of interest. Particularly in manual or medical areas where motor skills are required, haptic technologies are declared to be supportive and beneficial. One area that has hardly focused on digital learning so far is the music sector. Learning a musical instrument in this context seems to be an interesting field of research, as it not only promotes motor skills, but also cognitive development in both children and adults. To give an update on the technical developments in the field of digital teaching and learning in music, and especially to highlight the use of haptic technologies, we will briefly review the state of the art in this paper. It begins with a brief overview of the basics of digital learning and haptics, as well as previous work in this field. Using the method of a scoping review, the topic of haptic technologies in the field of music education will be researched, analysed, and summarised according to defined criteria to give a condensed overview of it. The selected database and appropriate search strings will be used to achieve the aim of the paper. The results help to shed light on current research gaps and give indications for future developments of haptic technology in the music learning context.
Digital pen signals were shown to be predictive for cognitive states, cognitive load and emotion in educational settings. We investigate whether low-level pen-based features can predict the ...difficulty of tasks in a cognitive test and the learner's performance in these tasks, which is inherently related to cognitive load, without a semantic content analysis. We record data for tasks of varying difficulty in a controlled study with children from elementary school. We include two versions of the Trail Making Test (TMT) and six drawing patterns from the Snijders-Oomen Non-verbal intelligence test (SON) as tasks that feature increasing levels of difficulty. We examine how accurately we can predict the task difficulty and the user performance as a measure for cognitive load using support vector machines and gradient boosted decision trees with different feature selection strategies. The results show that our correlation-based feature selection is beneficial for model training, in particular when samples from TMT and SON are concatenated for joint modelling of difficulty and time. Our findings open up opportunities for technology-enhanced adaptive learning.
PDF
