This thematic issue of the journal Psychological Topics is dedicated to meta-reasoning, a study of metacognitive processes of monitoring and control involved in thinking and complex cognition. ...Meta-reasoning is a novel field of research that stands at the intersection between the two well-established areas of cognitive psychology: psychology of thinking and metacognition. Psychology of thinking and metacognition have developed in the last few decades quite independently, with only sporadic attempts of crossing borders between the fields. However, this changed recently. Within the psychology of thinking, the focus of the research has shifted from normative accuracy of human thinking towards more fine-grained analyses of cognitive processing involved in reasoning, judgment, decision making and problem-solving. On the other hand, there is a growing awareness that metacognitive processes of monitoring and control play a pivotal role in many cognitive domains, not only in memory and in reading comprehension, the two domains that have been extensively studied within the metacognitive framework. The research on meta-reasoning processes is in the early stages, with many questions still unanswered. However, the work done so far has important implications for both psychology of thinking and for metacognition, but also for general theories of cognition, for some long-lasting problems in cognitive science (for example, the problem of rationality), and for applied psychology as well, including educational and clinical psychology. This volume presents theoretical and empirical papers that address a variety of topics related to meta-reasoning: heuristic cues for meta-reasoning judgments, dual-strategy models of deductive reasoning, fluency and feeling of rightness, consistency and consensuality in syllogistic reasoning, metacognitive analysis of covariation detection task, confidence and affect, individual differences in syllogistic reasoning, metacognition and mathematics anxiety, metacognitive feelings and illusion of linearity, and estimations of competence in neurodevelopmental conditions. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all the authors who contributed to this thematic issue, and to academic reviewers. I would also like to thank Editor-In-Chief and Editorial Board for their support and assistance. Igor Bajšanski
In this study, we examined the effects of response consensuality in syllogistic reasoning on patterns of answer change by using the two-response paradigm. Participants evaluated 24 syllogistic ...problems previously found to differ in consensuality, including consensually correct (CC), consensually wrong (CW), and nonconsensual (NC) items. Each problem was presented two times and participants were required to provide an initial quick answer to the first presentation, to rethink the problem, and to provide their second and final response without time limits to the second presentation. Participants reported the feeling-of-rightness (FOR) following the initial response, and the final judgment of confidence (FJC) after the final response. Following the assumptions of Koriat's (2012) Self-Consistency Model of confidence, we expected higher probability of answer change for initial nonconsensual responses than for initial consensual responses. The results showed that patterns of answer change, as well as metacognitive judgments and response times, were related to item consensus and response consensuality. Nonconsensual responses were more likely to be changed than consensual responses, and the probability of answer change correlated negatively with item consensus. Faster response times and higher FORs and FJCs were obtained for consensual and consistent responses than for nonconsensual and inconsistent responses. The obtained results indicate that answer change may in part be a consequence of random fluctuations in representation sampling, or in generating evidence that supports each of the two response options.
U ovome su radu prikazane norme za semantičke kategorije
koje se pojavljuju u svakodnevnome jeziku. Popis 64 kategorije preuzet je iz
normi na engleskome jeziku (Van Overschelde i sur., 2004), a ...dodane su još
dvije kategorije. U istraživanju su sudjelovala 194 ispitanika (M = 38, Ž =
156), većinom studenti Sveučilišta u Rijeci (92.3 %). Zadatak ispitanika bio
je navesti četiri tipična pripadnika za svaku kategoriju, a odgovori su
bilježeni pomoću računala. U radu su prikazane mjere koje opisuju status
kategorije, a to su ukupan broj navedenih entiteta (pripadnika kategorije),
broj entiteta s frekvencijom jednakom ili većom od deset, broj
visokofrekventnih entiteta čija je proporcija pojavljivanja jednaka ili veća
od .80 te indeks konzistentnosti odgovaranja. Naveden je i rang kategorija
prema indeksu konzistentnosti odgovaranja. Osim toga, za svaku su kategoriju
prikazani odgovori s frekvencijom pojavljivanja jednakom ili većom od deset,
a za svaki je navedeni entitet prikazana proporcija pojavljivanja, zatim
proporcija pojavljivanja na prvome mjestu te prosječni rang položaja odgovora
unutar pojedine kategorije. Izrađene norme za semantičke kategorije
predstavljaju metodološki alat za ujednačavanje i sistematizaciju jezičnih
podražaja koji će biti od koristi u budućim istraživanjima iz kognitivne
psihologije, psiholingvistike i srodnih područja na hrvatskome jeziku.
In this paper, norms for semantic categories used in
Croatian everyday language are presented. We used the list of 64 categories
from the norms in English language (Van Overschelde et al., 2004), and 2
categories were added to the list. In the study participated 194 subjects (M =
38, F = 156), mainly students of the University of Rijeka (92.3 %). The
participants had to list four typical exemplars for each presented category.
Measures that describe the status of each category are shown: total number of
entities, number of entities with a frequency higher or equal to ten, number
of high-frequency entities whose proportion is equal to or higher than .80,
and response consistency index. Categories were ranked according to the
response consistency indexes. Furthermore, for each category, entities with a
frequency higher or equal to ten are presented, and the proportion,
proportion of appearing in the first place, and the mean rank of the position
of the response are presented for each entity. Category norms are a
methodological research tool that can be used for systematization of verbal
stimuli in future research in the Croatian language in the area of cognitive
psychology, psycholinguistics and related fields.
Indirektni govor je fenomen u kojem govornik kaže nešto što ne misli doslovno vjerujući pritom da će slušatelj razumjeti pravo značenje poruke. Jedna od novijih teorija indirektnog govora, teorija ...strateškog govornika, navodi da indirektan govor nije samo socijalni ritual (tehnika pristojnosti u svrhu očuvanja obraza sugovornika) već i logička strategija. Prema tome, indirektni govor pruža govorniku mogućnost nijekanja pravog značenja svojih riječi kada one ne nailaze na plodno tlo, čime, na neki način, zaštićuje sebe. U ovom je istraživanju cilj bio ispitati postoji li razlika u procjeni jasnoće rečeničnog izraza, sigurnosti slušatelja o stvarnom značenju govornikova rečeničnog izraza i procjeni zajedničkog znanja slušatelja i govornika s obzirom na razinu direktnosti rečeničnog izraza. Očekivali smo da će varijabla direktnosti jezičnog izraza utjecati na promjenu u navedenim zavisnim varijablama. Ispitano je 134 ispitanika (101 žena i 33 muškarca) studenata Filozofskog fakulteta u Rijeci. Svi su ispitanici čitali dva scenarija razgovora u kojima je opisan događaj nakon kojeg jedan od aktera daje povratnu informaciju drugom akteru u formi neslaganja. U oba su scenarija korišteni jednaki rečenični izrazi povratne informacije koji su varirali od najdirektnijeg izraza (U krivu si.) do najneodređenijeg izraza (Zaista je teško pronaći pravo rješenje ovog problema.). Istraživanje je pokazalo da postoji razlika u procjeni zajedničkog znanja govornika i slušatelja s obzirom na razinu direktnosti rečeničnog izraza. Što je izraz direktniji, to su i procjene zajedničkog znanja više. Isti je obrazac dobiven za procjenu sigurnosti slušatelja o stvarnom značenju rečeničnog izraza kao i za procjenu jasnoće rečeničnog izraza.
Cilj je provedenog istraživanja bio ispitati faktorsku strukturu Petofacetnog upitnika usredotočene svjesnosti (FFMQ, Baer i sur., 2006) na hrvatskom uzorku i utvrditi odnose usredotočene svjesnosti ...s relevantnim kriterijima. Uz ispitivanje originalne i alternativnih faktorskih struktura FFMQ-a ispitana je i njegova povezanost s iskustvom u meditaciji, neki aspekti konvergentno-divergentne valjanosti (povezanost s crtama ličnosti petofaktorskog modela) te prediktivna i inkrementalna valjanost u objašnjenju emocionalnog reagiranja na jednostavne podražaje. Ukupno 242 ispitanika iz populacije studenata i opće populacije od 18 do 68 godina popunilo je FFMQ, Petofaktorski inventar ličnosti (BFI, Benet-Martinez i John, 1998) i mjeru emocionalnog reagiranja operacionaliziranog kao evaluacija prezentiranih riječi na dimenzijama valencije i uzbuđenja, odnosno intenziteta afektivnog odgovora. Rezultati su pokazali da (1) iako sve facete FFMQ-a imaju primjerenu pouzdanost, najprikladnije faktorsko rješenje predstavlja četverofaktorski hijerarhijski model s jednim faktorom višeg reda, u kojem je izostavljen faktor opažanja, a moguće je koristiti i svih pet faktora, ali u tom slučaju bez podrazumijevanja faktora višeg reda; (2) uz kontrolu svih relevantnih varijabli postoje značajne razlike između praktikanata i nepraktikanata meditacije na svim facetama FFMQ-a osim facete opisivanja, kao i na ukupnom rezultatu FFMQ-a; (3) dobivene su niske do umjerene očekivane povezanosti faceta FFMQ-a s dimenzijama petofaktorskog modela; (4) povezanosti faceta FFMQ-a i emocionalnog reagiranja niske su, očekivano snažnije za negativne u odnosu na pozitivne podražaje i smjer im varira ovisno o vrsti facete i vrsti podražaja, pri čemu (5) faceta neprosuđivanja ima inkrementalnu valjanost povrh dimenzija petofaktorskog modela ličnosti jedino u predikciji percepcije intenziteta negativnih podražaja. Raspravljena su moguća objašnjenja i implikacije dobivenih rezultata.
We explored factor structure of Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ, Baer et al., 2006) in a Croatian sample and its relationship with relevant criteria. In addition to testing of the original and alternative factor structures of FFMQ, we also tested its relationship with meditation experience, as well as some aspects of convergent-divergent validity (relationship with Five-factor model personality dimensions) and its predictive and incremental validity in explaining emotional responses to simple stimuli. In a sample of 244 participants (ages 18 – 68) from a population of university students and general population, we administered FFMQ, Big Five Inventory (BFI, Benet-Martinez & John, 1998), and a measure of emotional responding operationalized as evaluation of different words on valence and arousal/emotional intensity dimensions. The results showed that: 1. Although all FFMQ facets do have adequate reliability, it was a four-four factor hierarchical model, without facet Observe and with one higher-order factor that represented the most acceptable factor solution. A solution with five factors was also acceptable, but without a corresponding higher-order factor; 2. After controlling for all potentially confounding variables, significant differences between individuals with and without meditation experience in all FFMQ facets except the Describe facet, as well as in FFMQ composite, were found; 3. Several low to moderate, expected correlations between FFMQ facets and Five-factor model personality dimensions were observed; 4. Correlations between FFMQ facets and emotional responding were low and, expectedly, larger for negative than for positive stimuli, with direction of correlation being different for different facets and types of stimuli; and 5. The Nonjudge facet showed incremental validity above the Five-factor model dimensions only when predicting the intensity of negative stimuli. Potential explanations and implications of such results were discussed.
El objetivo de este trabajo fue examinar la estructura factorial del Cuestionario de cinco facetas de la conciencia plena (FFMQ, Baer y col., 2006) en la muestra croata y determinar la relación entre la conciencia plena y los criterios relevantes. Se han examinado las estructuras factoriales originales y alternativas de FFMQ, tanto como su conexión con experiencias en la meditación, algunos aspectos de la validez convergente-divergente (relacionada con los rasgos de personalidad de los cinco grandes) y la validez predicativa e incremental para explicar la reacción emocional a estimulaciones simples. Un total de 242 examinados a la edad entre 18 y 68 años (estudiantes y populación general) ha completado FFMQ, Inventario de los cinco grandes (BFI, Benet-Martinez y John, 1998) y la medida de reacción emocional hecha como evaluación de palabras presentadas en las dimensiones de valencia y excitación, o sea, intensidad de la respuesta afectiva. Los resultados han demostrado que 1) aunque todas las facetas de FFMQ tienen una fiabilidad adecuada, la resolución factorial más adecuada sería el modelo jerárquico de cuatro factores con un modelo del orden superior, en el que se omite Observación, pero se pueden utilizar también todos los cinco factores, sólo que en este caso sin un factor del orden superior; 2) si se controlan todas las variables relevantes, se notan diferencias significativas en todas las facetas de FFMQ, menos en la faceta de Descripción y en resultado total de FFMQ, entre los que practican la meditación y los que no lo hacen; 3) se han obtenido conexiones esperadas bajas y moderadas entre las facetas FFMQ y las dimensiones del modelo de los cinco grandes; 4) las conexiones entre las facetas FFMQ y la reacción emocional son bajas, más fuertes para las estimulaciones negativas en comparación con las positivas y su dirección varía dependiendo del tipo de faceta y del tipo de estimulación, en lo que 5) la faceta de la Falta de deliberación tiene una validez incremental más allá de las dimensiones del modelo de los cinco grandes sólo en la predicción de la percepción de la intensidad de estimulaciones negativas. Se discuten posibles explicaciones e implicaciones de resultados obtenidos.
This thematic issue of the journal Psychological Topics is dedicated to meta-reasoning, a study of metacognitive processes of monitoring and control involved in thinking and complex cognition. ...Meta-reasoning is a novel field of research that stands at the intersection between the two well-established areas of cognitive psychology: psychology of thinking and metacognition.Psychology of thinking and metacognition have developed in the last few decades quite independently, with only sporadic attempts of crossing borders between the fields. However, this changed recently. Within the psychology of thinking, the focus of the research has shifted from normative accuracy of human thinking towards more fine-grained analyses of cognitive processing involved in reasoning, judgment, decision making and problem-solving. On the other hand, there is a growing awareness that metacognitive processes of monitoring and control play a pivotal role in many cognitive domains, not only in memory and in reading comprehension, the two domains that have been extensively studied within the metacognitive framework.The research on meta-reasoning processes is in the early stages, with many questions still unanswered. However, the work done so far has important implications for both psychology of thinking and for metacognition, but also for general theories of cognition, for some long-lasting problems in cognitive science (for example, the problem of rationality), and for applied psychology as well, including educational and clinical psychology.This volume presents theoretical and empirical papers that address a variety of topics related to meta-reasoning: heuristic cues for meta-reasoning judgments, dual-strategy models of deductive reasoning, fluency and feeling of rightness, consistency and consensuality in syllogistic reasoning, metacognitive analysis of covariation detection task, confidence and affect, individual differences in syllogistic reasoning, metacognition and mathematics anxiety, metacognitive feelings and illusion of linearity, and estimations of competence in neurodevelopmental conditions.I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all the authors who contributed to this thematic issue, and to academic reviewers. I would also like to thank Editor-In-Chief and Editorial Board for their support and assistance.Igor Bajšanski
In this study, we examined differences in music-evoked emotions and music liking between two approaches to teaching ear-training in music school. Participants were 423 pupils (60% female; Mage = ...10.55 years, SDage = 0.92) in the third grade. In two ear-training lessons prepared either by the standard (STA) or the multimodal and interdisciplinary cognitive-emotional approach (CEA), pupils listened to a 2-minute excerpt from the 4th movement (Allegro con fuoco) of the Symphony no. 9 in E minor, Op. 95 (“From the New World”) by Antonín Dvořák. The Geneva Emotional Music Scale (GEMS-9, Zentner et al., 2008) was translated and adapted to measure music-evoked emotions. Pupils also reported their music liking. In this study, the original three-factor structure of the GEMS-9 was not replicated, and instead a two-factor solution with factors labelled Activation and Calmness emerged. The results showed that in both groups the music evoked moderate to moderately high Activation and low Calmness. Pupils reported high music liking, however, those who participated in the CEA liked the music more than those who participated in the STA. The listening activities that enrich children’s experiences of classical music in the classroom are discussed.
We conducted a thorough investigation of the impact of representativeness on reasoning and metacognitive processes by employing the Linda problem. In congruent versions, the more representative ...response choice was also the correct one which was not the case in conflict versions. We manipulated the level of representativeness of the responses by making the component statements more or less representative of presented descriptions. The main findings revealed that higher levels of representativeness led to lower accuracy, faster responses and higher confidence. Detailed analysis revealed that certain reasoning processes heavily depend on representativeness and metacognitive assessments based on it (e.g., decoupling from a representative but incorrect response need not lead to lower confidence though it may be computationally expensive). Finally, responses remained mostly stable after rethinking, while answer changes towards the more representative choice were more likely than the opposite which implies Type 2 processes may support both normative and heuristic thinking.
In two experiments, we examined the resolution of confidence judgments in syllogistic reasoning and their heuristic bases. Based on the assumptions of Koriat's Self-Consistency Model of confidence, ...we expected the confidence judgments to be related to conclusion consensuality, reflecting the role of consistency as a heuristic cue to confidence. In Experiment 1, the participants evaluated 24 syllogisms with conclusions that varied with respect to validity and consensuality. In Experiment 2, the participants produced conclusions to 64 pairs of premises. The correlation between confidence and reasoning accuracy was low. In both experiments confidence was related to the consensuality of the responses. For consensually correct items, correlation between confidence and accuracy was positive; however, for consensually incorrect items it was negative. In Experiment 2, confidence was lower for syllogisms with higher response cardinality, or syllogisms that elicited a greater variety of conclusions.
In this study, we examined the effects of response consensuality in syllogistic reasoning on patterns of answer change by using the two-response paradigm. Participants evaluated 24 syllogistic ...problems previously found to differ in consensuality, including consensually correct (CC), consensually wrong (CW), and nonconsensual (NC) items. Each problem was presented two times and participants were required to provide an initial quick answer to the first presentation, to rethink the problem, and to provide their second and final response without time limits to the second presentation. Participants reported the feeling-of-rightness (FOR) following the initial response, and the final judgment of confidence (FJC) after the final response. Following the assumptions of Koriat's (2012) Self-Consistency Model of confidence, we expected higher probability of answer change for initial nonconsensual responses than for initial consensual responses. The results showed that patterns of answer change, as well as metacognitive judgments and response times, were related to item consensus and response consensuality. Nonconsensual responses were more likely to be changed than consensual responses, and the probability of answer change correlated negatively with item consensus. Faster response times and higher FORs and FJCs were obtained for consensual and consistent responses than for nonconsensual and inconsistent responses. The obtained results indicate that answer change may in part be a consequence of random fluctuations in representation sampling, or in generating evidence that supports each of the two response options.
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