Epidemiologic studies, including prospective birth cohort investigations, have implicated maternal immune activation in the etiology of neuropsychiatric disorders. Maternal infectious pathogens and ...inflammation are plausible risk factors for these outcomes and have been associated with schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder, and bipolar disorder. Concurrent with epidemiologic research are animal models of prenatal immune activation, which have documented behavioral, neurochemical, neuroanatomic, and neurophysiologic disruptions that mirror phenotypes observed in these neuropsychiatric disorders. Epidemiologic studies of maternal immune activation offer the advantage of directly evaluating human populations but are limited in their ability to uncover pathogenic mechanisms. Animal models, on the other hand, are limited in their generalizability to psychiatric disorders but have made significant strides toward discovering causal relationships and biological pathways between maternal immune activation and neuropsychiatric phenotypes. Incorporating these risk factors in reverse translational animal models of maternal immune activation has yielded a wealth of data supporting the predictive potential of epidemiologic studies. To further enhance the translatability between epidemiology and basic science, the authors propose a complementary approach that includes deconstructing neuropsychiatric outcomes of maternal immune activation into key pathophysiologically defined phenotypes that are identifiable in humans and animals and that evaluate the interspecies concordance regarding interactions between maternal immune activation and genetic and epigenetic factors, including processes involving intergenerational disease transmission.AJP AT 175: Remembering Our Past As We Envision Our FutureOctober 1857: The Pathology of InsanityJ.C. Bucknill: “In the brain the state of inflammation itself either very quickly ceases or very soon causes death; but when it does cease it leaves behind it consequences which are frequently the causes of insanity, and the conditions of cerebral atrophy.” (Am J Psychiatry 1857; 14:172–193)
In the present article the putative role of environmental factors in schizophrenia is reviewed and synthesized. Accumulating evidence from recent studies suggests that environmental exposures may ...play a more significant role in the etiopathogenesis of this disorder than previously thought. This expanding knowledge base is largely a consequence of refinements in the methodology of epidemiologic studies, including birth cohort investigations, and in preclinical research that has been inspired by the evolving literature on animal models of environmental exposures. This paper is divided into four sections. In the first, the descriptive epidemiology of schizophrenia is reviewed. This includes general studies on incidence, prevalence, and differences in these measures by urban-rural, neighborhood, migrant, and season of birth status, as well as time trends. In the second section, we discuss the contribution of environmental risk factors acting during fetal and perinatal life; these include infections e.g. rubella, influenza, Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), nutritional deficiencies (e.g., famine, folic acid, iron, vitamin D), paternal age, fetal/neonatal hypoxic and other obstetric insults and complications, maternal stress and other exposures e.g. lead, rhesus (Rh) incompatibility, maternal stress. Other putative neurodevelopmental determinants, including cannabis, socioeconomic status, trauma, and infections during childhood and adolescence are also covered. In the third section, these findings are synthesized and their implications for prevention and uncovering biological mechanisms, including oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inflammation, are discussed. Animal models, including maternal immune activation, have yielded evidence suggesting that these exposures cause brain and behavioral phenotypes that are analogous to findings observed in patients with schizophrenia. In the final section, future studies including new, larger, and more rigorous epidemiologic investigations, and research on translational and clinical neuroscience, gene-environment interactions, epigenetics, developmental trajectories and windows of vulnerability, are elaborated upon. These studies are aimed at confirming observed risk factors, identifying new environmental exposures, elucidating developmental mechanisms, and shedding further light on genes and exposures that may not be identified in the absence of these integrated approaches. The study of environmental factors in schizophrenia may have important implications for the identification of causes and prevention of this disorder, and offers the potential to complement, and refine, existing efforts on explanatory neurodevelopmental models.
AbstractAn emerging literature from epidemiologic, clinical, and preclinical investigations has provided evidence that gestational exposure to infection contributes to the etiology of schizophrenia. ...In recent years, these studies have moved from ecologic designs, which ascertain infection based on epidemics in populations, to investigations that have capitalized on reliable biomarkers in individual pregnancies. These studies have documented specific candidate infections that appear to be associated with an elevated risk of schizophrenia. Animal models of maternal immune activation inspired by this work have revealed intriguing findings indicating behavioral, neurochemical, and neurophysiologic abnormalities consistent with observations in schizophrenia. In parallel studies in humans and animals, investigators are working to uncover the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which in utero exposure to infection contributes to schizophrenia risk. In this review, the authors discuss and critically evaluate the epidemiologic literature on in utero exposure to infection and schizophrenia, summarize emerging animal models of maternal immune activation, and discuss putative unique and common mechanisms by which in utero exposure to infection alters neurodevelopment, potentially increasing susceptibility to schizophrenia. The promise of this work for facilitating the identification of susceptibility loci in genetic studies of schizophrenia is illustrated by examples of interaction between in utero exposure to infection and genetic variants. The authors then elaborate on possible implications of this work, including the use of preventive measures for reducing the incidence of schizophrenia. Finally, they discuss new approaches aimed at addressing current challenges in this area of research.
Epidemiologic studies have provided evidence that prenatal exposure to maternal infection is associated with an increased risk of developing schizophrenia in the offspring. Research over the past ...decade has added further to our understanding of the role of prenatal infection in schizophrenia risk. These investigations include several well-powered designs, and like some earlier studies, measured maternal antibodies to specific infectious agents in stored serum samples and large registers to identify clinically diagnosed infections during pregnancy. Convergent findings from antibody studies suggest that prenatal maternal infection with Toxoplasma gondii is associated with increased schizophrenia risk in the offspring, while associations with HSV-2 infection are likely attributable to confounding. Maternal influenza infection remains a viable candidate for schizophrenia, based on an early serological study, though there has been only one attempt to replicate this finding, with a differing methodology. A prior association between maternal serologically confirmed cytomegalovirus infections require further study. Clinically diagnosed maternal infection, particularly bacterial infection, also appears to be associated with increased risk of offspring schizophrenia, and heterogeneity in these findings is likely due to methodological differences between studies. Further clarification may be provided by future studies that address the timing, type, and clinical features of infections. Important insight may be gained by examining the long-term offspring outcomes in emerging epidemics such as Zika virus and COVID-19, and by investigating the interaction between exposure to prenatal infection and other risk or protective factors.
Maternal immune activation (MIA) at the time of gestation has been linked to increased risk of neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorders. Animal and human models have been used to evaluate the ...relationship between MIA and these outcomes. Given that each of these two disciplines of study have their benefits and limitations, a translational perspective is expected to illuminate more than by the use of any single approach. In this article, we discuss this translational framework and explore how it may be enhanced by the utilization of epigenetic studies and by investigating the microbiome. In this perspectives piece, we focus on the impact of epidemiologic studies, animal models, and preclinical studies in the literature on MIA as well as the potential for greater integration between fields.
To investigate the impact of gestational exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) on offspring neurodevelopment.
This is a cohort study using national register data in Finland ...between the years 1996 and 2010. Pregnant women and their offspring were categorized into 4 groups: SSRI exposed (n = 15,729); exposed to psychiatric disorder, no antidepressants (n = 9,651); exposed to SSRIs only before pregnancy (n = 7,980); and unexposed to antidepressants and psychiatric disorders (n = 31,394). We investigated the cumulative incidence of offspring diagnoses of depression, anxiety, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) for the 4 groups from birth to 14 years, adjusting for confounders.
The cumulative incidence of depression among offspring exposed prenatally to SSRIs was 8.2% (95% CI = 3.1-13.3%) by age 14.9 years, compared with 1.9% (95% CI = 0.9-2.9%) in the psychiatric disorder, no medication group (adjusted hazard ratio HR = 1.78; 95% CI = 1.12-2.82; p = .02) and to 2.8% (95% CI = 1.4-4.3%) in the SSRI discontinued group (HR = 1.84; 95% CI = 1.14-2.97; p = .01). Rates of anxiety, ASD, and ADHD diagnoses were comparable to rates in offspring of mothers with a psychiatric disorder but no medication during pregnancy. Comparing SSRI exposed to unexposed individuals, the HRs were significantly elevated for each outcome.
Prenatal SSRI exposure was associated with increased rates of depression diagnoses in early adolescence but not with ASD or ADHD. Until confirmed, these findings must be balanced against the substantial adverse consequences of untreated maternal depression.
The 2017 American College of Neuropychopharmacology (ACNP) conference hosted a Study Group on 4 December 2017, Establishing best practice guidelines to improve the rigor, reproducibility, and ...transparency of the maternal immune activation (MIA) animal model of neurodevelopmental abnormalities. The goals of this session were to (a) evaluate the current literature and establish a consensus on best practices to be implemented in MIA studies, (b) identify remaining research gaps warranting additional data collection and lend to the development of evidence-based best practice design, and (c) inform the MIA research community of these findings. During this session, there was a detailed discussion on the importance of validating immunogen doses and standardizing the general design (e.g., species, immunogenic compound used, housing) of our MIA models both within and across laboratories. The consensus of the study group was that data does not currently exist to support specific evidence-based model selection or methodological recommendations due to lack of consistency in reporting, and that this issue extends to other inflammatory models of neurodevelopmental abnormalities. This launched a call to establish a reporting checklist focusing on validation, implementation, and transparency modeled on the ARRIVE Guidelines and CONSORT (scientific reporting guidelines for animal and clinical research, respectively). Here we provide a summary of the discussions in addition to a suggested checklist of reporting guidelines needed to improve the rigor and reproducibility of this valuable translational model, which can be adapted and applied to other animal models as well.
We discuss the rationale for a trial of a novel biological immunotherapy in schizophrenia (SCZ). Available antipsychotic treatments for SCZ are often limited by partial effectiveness and significant ...side effects. The search for novel medications is of high priority. All current antipsychotics function primarily by blocking D2-type dopamine receptors. An emerging theory of SCZ postulates disturbances of cytokines and inflammatory mediators (i.e., the cytokine model), possibly originating in part from infectious exposures. Cytokines are one of the most important components of the immune system that orchestrate the response to infectious and other exogenous insults. Preclinical models of SCZ support a convergence between a role for certain cytokines in the pathophysiology of SCZ and major neurochemical postulates of the disorder, including the dopamine and glutamate hypotheses. Several cytokines are elevated in plasma in SCZ, and positron emission tomography studies have shown active inflammation in the brains of patients with psychosis. Treatment studies of anti-inflammatory agents, such as celecoxib and aspirin, in patients with SCZ have provided further support for neuroinflammation in this disorder. The development of approved biological therapies for autoimmune diseases provides new opportunities to target cytokine signaling directly as a novel treatment strategy in SCZ. In addition, advances in imaging, immunology, and psychopharmacology have paved the way for using measures of target engagement of neuroimmune components that would facilitate the identification of patient subgroups who are most likely to benefit from cytokine modulation.
This book brings together the body of empirical findings and theoretical interpretations of the tip of the tongue (TOT) experience - when a well-known or familiar word cannot immediately be recalled. ...Although research has been published on TOTs for over a century, the experience retains its fascination for both cognitive and linguistic researchers.
After a review of various research procedures used to study TOTs, the book offers a summary of attempts to manipulate this rare cognitive experience through cue and prime procedures. Various aspects of the inaccessible target word are frequently available - such as first letter and syllable number - even in the absence of actual retrieval, and the book explores the implications of these bits of target-word information for mechanisms for word storage and retrieval. It also examines: what characteristics of a word make it potentially more vulnerable to a TOT; why words related to the target word (called "interlopers") often come to mind; the recovery process, when the momentarily-inaccessible word is recovered shortly after the TOT is first experienced; and efforts to evaluate individual differences in the likelihood to experience TOTs.
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