James Donovan takes a comprehensive approach to the history of the jury in modern France by investigating the legal, political, sociocultural, and intellectual aspects of jury trial from the ...Revolution through the twentieth century. He demonstrates that these juries, through their decisions, helped shape reform of the nation's criminal justice system.From their introduction in 1791 as an expression of the sovereignty of the people through the early 1900s, argues Donovan, juries often acted against the wishes of the political and judicial authorities, despite repeated governmental attempts to manipulate their composition. High acquittal rates for both political and nonpolitical crimes were in part due to juror resistance to the harsh and rigid punishments imposed by the Napoleonic Penal Code, Donovan explains.In response, legislators gradually enacted laws to lower penalties for certain crimes and to give jurors legal means to offer nuanced verdicts and to ameliorate punishments. Faced with persistently high acquittal rates, however, governments eventually took powers away from juries by withdrawing many cases from their purview and ultimately destroying the panels' independence in 1941.
The immune system of the infant is functionally immature and naïve. Human milk contains bioactive proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates that protect the newborn and stimulate innate and adaptive immune ...development. This review will focus on the role human milk oligosaccharides (HMO) play in neonatal gastrointestinal and systemic immune development and function. For the past decade, intense research has been directed at defining the complexity of oligosaccharides in the milk of many species and is beginning to delineate their diverse functions. These studies have shown that human milk contains a higher concentration as well as a greater structural diversity and degree of fucosylation than the milk oligosaccharides in other species, particularly bovine milk from which many infant formulae are produced. The commercial availability of large quantities of certain HMO has furthered our understanding of the functions of specific HMO, which include protecting the infant from pathogenic infections, facilitating the establishment of the gut microbiota, promoting intestinal development, and stimulating immune maturation. Many of these actions are exerted through carbohydrate-carbohydrate interactions with pathogens or host cells. Two HMOs, 2'-fucosyllactose (2'FL) and lacto-N-neotetraose (LNnT), have recently been added to infant formula. Although this is a first step in narrowing the compositional gap between human milk and infant formula, it is unclear whether 1 or 2 HMO will recapitulate the complexity of actions exerted by the complex mixture of HMO ingested by breastfed infants. Thus, as more HMO become commercially available, either isolated from bovine milk or chemically or microbially synthesized, it is anticipated that more oligosaccharides will be added to infant formula either alone or in combination with other prebiotics.
Objective
: to elaborate a new standard for assessing the level of decentralization of cryptoassets in the USA.
Methods
: dialectical approach to cognition of social phenomena, allowing to analyze ...them in historical development and functioning in the context of the totality of objective and subjective factors, which predetermined the following research methods: formal-logical and sociological.
Results
: Crypto assets and blockchain technology have the potential to create unprecedented equitable access to financial institutions. Despite this potential, there is a robust debate regarding federal agencies' jurisdiction over the novel asset class. Without clear statutory guidelines, federal agencies have been forced to resolve this debate through the rulemaking process. However, agency rules regarding jurisdiction over crypto assets could be scrutinized by a reviewing court under the major questions doctrine. Once highly deferential to agency rules, the U.S. Supreme Court in recent terms has repeatedly struck down agency rules when an agency claims an unheralded power to regulate an issue of deep economic and political significance. The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) arguably claims such a power by interpreting most crypto assets to be "investment contracts" and thus under SEC jurisdiction. But although a decision on major questions doctrine grounds in the high-profile case SEC v. Ripple Labs, Inc. could help clarify how we classify crypto assets, it leaves many jurisdictional questions unanswered and could complicate the application of the SEC's disclosure regime to risky crypto asset offerings.
Scientific novelty
: This Note argues that Congress should pass the Lummis-Gillibrand Responsible Financial Innovation Act to create joint jurisdiction between the SEC and the Commodities Futures Trading Commission over most crypto asset offerings. This may help to balance consumer protection and innovation at the frontier of financial innovation. The author also endorses a new standard to evaluate whether a crypto asset is sufficiently decentralized to further clarify the SEC's role in regulating crypto asset offerings.
Practical significance
: the main provisions and conclusions of the article can be used in scientific, pedagogical and law enforcement activities when considering the issues related to the activity of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission.
Thermal-stress events associated with climate change cause coral bleaching and mortality that threatens coral reefs globally. Yet coral bleaching patterns vary spatially and temporally. Here we ...synthesize field observations of coral bleaching at 3351 sites in 81 countries from 1998 to 2017 and use a suite of environmental covariates and temperature metrics to analyze bleaching patterns. Coral bleaching was most common in localities experiencing high intensity and high frequency thermal-stress anomalies. However, coral bleaching was significantly less common in localities with a high variance in sea-surface temperature (SST) anomalies. Geographically, the highest probability of coral bleaching occurred at tropical mid-latitude sites (15-20 degrees north and south of the Equator), despite similar thermal stress levels at equatorial sites. In the last decade, the onset of coral bleaching has occurred at significantly higher SSTs (∼0.5 °C) than in the previous decade, suggesting that thermally susceptible genotypes may have declined and/or adapted such that the remaining coral populations now have a higher thermal threshold for bleaching.
Diet is one of the most influential environmental factors in determining the composition of the gastrointestinal microbiota. Microbial dysbiosis in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and ...the impact of some bacterial taxa on symptoms of ASD has been recognized. Children with ASD are often described as picky eaters with low intake of fiber-rich foods, including fruits and vegetables. However, the impact of diet on the microbiota composition in children with ASD is largely unknown. Herein, fecal samples, 3 day food diaries and the Youth and Adolescence Food Frequency questionnaire (YAQ) were collected from children with ASD (ASD;
= 26) and unaffected controls (CONT;
= 32). Children's ASD symptoms were determined using the Pervasive Developmental Disorder Behavior Inventory Screening Version (PDDBI-SV). Differences in the microbiota composition at the phyla, order, family, and genus level between ASD and CONT were observed. Microbiota composition of children with ASD was investigated in relation to feeding behavior, nutrient and food group intake as well as dietary patterns derived from the YAQ. In children with ASD, two distinct dietary patterns (DP) were associated with unique microbial profiles. DP1, characterized by higher intakes of vegetables, legumes, nuts and seeds, fruit, refined carbohydrates, and starchy vegetables, but lower intakes of sweets, was associated with lower abundance of
, and
. DP2, characterized by low intakes of vegetables, legumes, nuts and seeds and starchy vegetables, was associated with higher
and
and lower
, as well as higher levels of propionate, isobutyrate, valerate, and isovalerate. Peptostreptococcaceae and
predicted social deficit scores in children with ASD as measured by the PDDBI-SV. Diet-associated microbial profiles were related to GI symptoms, but no significant interaction between nutrition and microbiota in predicting social deficit scores were observed. In conclusion, dietary patterns associated with fecal microbiota composition and VFA concentrations in children with ASD were identified. Future studies using a larger sample size and measuring other behaviors associated with ASD are needed to investigate whether dietary intake may be a modifiable moderator of ASD symptoms.
Background
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is of particular concern during pregnancy when not one, but two lives are at risk. Previous meta‐analyses have suggested an association between IPV and ...adverse birth outcomes; however, many large studies have since been published, illustrating the need for updated pooled effect estimates.
Objectives
To evaluate the relationship between IPV during pregnancy and the risk of preterm birth (PTB), low‐birthweight (LBW), and small‐for‐gestational‐age (SGA) infants.
Search strategy
We searched PubMed and SCOPUS (from inception until May 2015), and the reference lists of the relevant studies.
Selection criteria
Observational studies comparing the rates of at least one adverse birth outcome (SGA, LBW, or PTB) in women who experienced IPV during pregnancy and those who did not.
Data collection and analysis
Data extracted from 50 studies were pooled and pooled odds ratios were calculated using random‐effects models.
Main results
Intimate partner violence (IPV) was significantly associated with PTB (OR 1.91, 95% CI 1.60–2.29) and LBW (OR 2.11, 95% CI 1.68–2.65), although a large level of heterogeneity was present for both (I2 = 84 and 91%, respectively). The association with SGA was less pronounced and marginally significant (OR 1.37, 95% CI 1.02–1.84), although fewer studies were available for meta‐analysis (n = 7).
Conclusions
Our meta‐analysis indicates that women who experienced IPV during pregnancy are at increased risk of having a PTB, and an LBW or an SGA infant. More studies examining the association between IPV and SGA are needed.
Tweetable
Meta‐analysis of IPV during pregnancy finds increased risk for preterm birth, LBW and SGA infants.
Tweetable
Meta‐analysis of IPV during pregnancy finds increased risk for preterm birth, LBW and SGA infants.
The early postnatal period is a critical time for gastrointestinal (GI) and immune development. Neonates fed mother's milk have more rapid GI and immune development than fed-formula infants. In ...addition, clinical and epidemiologic data provide strong evidence that breastfeeding reduces the incidence and/or severity of infectious diseases. Lactoferrin is a 77 kDa, iron-binding glycoprotein that is present at high concentration in human milk compared with bovine milk and infant formula. It is a multifunctional protein that mediates many of the physiological processes in which breastfed infants have advantages over their formula-fed peers, including promoting GI and immune development, protection from infections, and improved cognitive development. Feeding bovine lactoferrin or recombinant human lactoferrin was well tolerated and stimulated intestinal cell proliferation and increased villus length and crypt depth in piglets. Lactoferrin also influenced both systemic and GI immune development by stimulating a balanced T-helper-1/T-helper-2 cytokine immune response. Further, there was a tendency for immune cells to secrete more anti-inflammatory cytokines in an unstimulated state, while being primed for a robust pro-inflammatory response when presented with a bacterial trigger in piglets fed lactoferrin. These findings support clinical studies demonstrating benefits of dietary lactoferrin in the prevention of infections, late onset sepsis, and necrotizing enterocolitis.
Gnotobiotic (GN) rodent models have provided insight into the contributions of the gut microbiota to host health and preventing disease. However, rodent models are limited by several important ...physiological and metabolic differences from humans, and many rodent models do not dependably replicate the clinical manifestations of human diseases. Due to the high degree of similarity in anatomy, physiology, immunology and brain growth, the domestic pig (Sus scrofa) is considered a clinically relevant model to study factors influencing human gastrointestinal, immune, and brain development. Gnotobiotic piglet models have been developed and shown to recapitulate key aspects of GN rodent models. Human microbiota-associated (HMA) piglets have been established using inocula from infants, children, and adults. The gut microbiota of recipient HMA piglets was more similar to that of the human donor than that of conventionally reared piglets harboring a pig microbiota. Moreover, Bifidobacterium and Bacteroides, two predominant bacterial groups of infant gut, were successfully established in the HMA piglets. Thus, the HMA pig model has the potential to be a valuable model for investigating how the gut microbiota composition changes in response to environmental factors, such as age, diet, vaccination, antibiotic use and infection. The HMA also represents a robust model for screening the efficacy of pre- and probiotic interventions. Lastly, HMA piglets can be an ideal model with which to elucidate microbe–host interactions in human health and disease due to the similarities to humans in anatomy, physiology, developmental maturity at birth, and the pathophysiology of many human diseases.
Endolysins are enzymes used by bacteriophages at the end of their replication cycle to degrade the peptidoglycan of the bacterial host from within, resulting in cell lysis and release of progeny ...virions. Due to the absence of an outer membrane in the Gram-positive bacterial cell wall, endolysins can access the peptidoglycan and destroy these organisms when applied externally, making them interesting antimicrobial candidates, particularly in light of increasing bacterial drug resistance. This article reviews the modular structure of these enzymes, in which cell wall binding and catalytic functions are separated, as well as their mechanism of action, lytic activity and potential as antimicrobials. It particularly focuses on molecular engineering as a means of optimizing endolysins for specific applications, highlights new developments that may render these proteins active against Gram-negative and intracellular pathogens and summarizes the most recent applications of endolysins in the fields of medicine, food safety, agriculture and biotechnology.
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