Due to the high proline content of gluten molecules, gastrointestinal proteases are unable to fully degrade them leaving large proline-rich gluten fragments intact, including an immunogenic 33-mer ...from α-gliadin and a 26-mer from γ-gliadin. These latter peptides can trigger pro-inflammatory T cell responses resulting in tissue remodeling, malnutrition and a variety of other complications. A strict lifelong gluten-free diet is currently the only available treatment to cope with gluten intolerance. Post-proline cutting enzymes have been shown to effectively degrade the immunogenic gluten peptides and have been proposed as oral supplements. Several existing digestive enzyme supplements also claim to aid in gluten degradation. Here we investigate the effectiveness of such existing enzyme supplements in comparison with a well characterized post-proline cutting enzyme, Prolyl EndoPeptidase from Aspergillus niger (AN-PEP).
Five commercially available digestive enzyme supplements along with purified digestive enzymes were subjected to 1) enzyme assays and 2) mass spectrometric identification. Gluten epitope degradation was monitored by 1) R5 ELISA, 2) mass spectrometric analysis of the degradation products and 3) T cell proliferation assays.
The digestive enzyme supplements showed comparable proteolytic activities with near neutral pH optima and modest gluten detoxification properties as determined by ELISA. Mass spectrometric analysis revealed the presence of many different enzymes including amylases and a variety of different proteases with aminopeptidase and carboxypeptidase activity. The enzyme supplements leave the nine immunogenic epitopes of the 26-mer and 33-mer gliadin fragments largely intact. In contrast, the pure enzyme AN-PEP effectively degraded all nine epitopes in the pH range of the stomach at much lower dose. T cell proliferation assays confirmed the mass spectrometric data.
Currently available digestive enzyme supplements are ineffective in degrading immunogenic gluten epitopes.
Chill-haze formation during beer production is known to involve polyphenols that interact with proline-rich proteins. We hypothesized that incubating beer wort with a proline-specific protease would ...extensively hydrolyze these proline-rich proteins, yielding a peptide fraction that is unable to form a haze. Predigestion of the proline-rich wheat gliadin with different proteases pointed toward a strong haze-suppressing effect by a proline-specific enzyme. This finding was confirmed in small-scale brewing experiments using a recently identified proline-specific protease with an acidic pH optimum. Subsequent pilot plant trials demonstrated that, upon its addition during the fermentation phase of beer brewing, even low levels of this acidic enzyme effectively prevented chill-haze formation in bottled beer. Results of beer foam stability measurements indicated that the enzyme treatment leaves the beer foam almost unaffected. In combination with the enzyme's cost-effectiveness and regulatory status, these preliminary test results seem to favor further industrial development of this enzymatic beer stabilization method. Keywords: Beer colloidal stabilization; haze; polyphenol; haze active proteins; proline-specific protease
Scope: Consumption of high-protein diets cause elevated levels of CCK and GLP-1. Although unknown, this might be due to protein breakdown by various proteases that originate from the gastrointestinal ...tract. This study investigated which dietary proteins, hydrolysates, or synthetic-peptides are most potent to affect secretion of CCK and GLP-1 in STC-1 cells known for satiety hormone release. Methods and results: Addition of intact proteins to STC-1 cells exerted strong effects on secretion of satiety hormones. Casein, whey, and pea showed strongest effects on CCK release, whereas casein, codfish, egg, and wheat showed most pronounced effects on GLP-1 release. Egg-hydrolysate stimulated release of CCK and GLP-1, whereas all other tested hydrolysates and synthetic-peptides showed no significant effects on hormone release. Addition of a combination of trypsin and casein-hydrolysate, codfish, egg, egg-hydrolysate, sodium-casein, wheat-hydrolysate, or wheat resulted in additional stimulation of CCK release, compared to only the protein. Addition of a combination of DPP-IV and egg-hydrolysate, ovomucoid, or sodium-casein decreased GLP-1 levels. Conclusion: This study showed that specific intact, or partially digested proteins, in contrast to protein-hydrolysates and synthetic-peptides, stimulated hormone release. We conclude that intact proteins exert strong effects on satiety hormone release, and may therefore provide potent dietary supplements for prevention or treatment of obesity.
The observation that the bitterest peptides from casein hydrolysates contain several proline residues led us to hypothesize that a proline-specific protease would be instrumental in debittering such ...peptides. To identify the desired proline-specific activity, a microbiological screening was carried out in which the chromogenic peptide benzyloxycarbonyl-glycine-proline-p-nitroanilide (Z-Gly-Pro-pNA) was used as the substrate. An Aspergillus niger (A. niger) strain was identified that produces an extracellular proline-specific protease with an acidic pH optimum. On the basis of sequence similarities, we conclude that the A. niger-derived enzyme probably belongs to the S28 family of clan SC of serine proteases rather than the S9 family to which prolyl oligopeptidases belong. Incubating the overexpressed and purified enzyme with bitter casein hydrolysates showed a major debittering effect. Reversed phase HPLC analysis revealed that this debittering effect is accompanied by a significant reduction of the number of hydrophobic peptides present. Keywords: Prolyl-specific endoprotease; secretion; debittering; protein hydrolysates
•AN-PEP degrades gluten efficiently under stomach-like conditions.•A carbonated drink improves AN-PEP-mediated gluten degradation.•Other dietary proteins decrease AN-PEP-mediated gluten ...degradation.•Fat does not have any effect on AN-PEP activity.
Celiac disease (CD) is caused by intolerance to gluten. Oral supplementation with enzymes like Aspergillus niger propyl-endoprotease (AN-PEP), which can hydrolyse gluten, has been proposed to prevent the harmful effects of ingestion of gluten. The influence of meal composition on AN-PEP activity was investigated using an in vitro model that simulates stomach-like conditions. AN-PEP optimal dosage was 20 proline protease units (PPU)/g gluten. The addition of a carbonated drink strongly enhanced AN-PEP activity because of its acidifying effect. While fat did not affect gluten degradation by AN-PEP, the presence of food proteins slowed down gluten detoxification. Moreover, raw gluten was degraded more efficiently by AN-PEP than baked gluten. We conclude that the meal composition influences the amount of AN-PEP needed for gluten elimination. Therefore, AN-PEP should not be used to replace a gluten free diet, but rather to support digestion of occasional and/or inadvertent gluten consumption.
Celiac disease is a T cell-driven intolerance to wheat gluten. The gluten-derived T cell epitopes are proline-rich and thereby highly resistant to proteolytic degradation within the gastrointestinal ...tract. Oral supplementation with prolyl oligopeptidases has therefore been proposed as a potential therapeutic approach. The enzymes studied, however, have limitations as they are irreversibly inactivated by pepsin and acidic pH, both present in the stomach. As a consequence, these enzymes will fail to degrade gluten before it reaches the small intestine, the site where gluten induces inflammatory T cell responses that lead to celiac disease. We have now determined the usefulness of a newly identified prolyl endoprotease from Aspergillus niger for this purpose. Gluten and its peptic/tryptic digest were treated with prolyl endoprotease, and the destruction of the T cell epitopes was tested using mass spectrometry, T cell proliferation assays, ELISA, reverse-phase HPLC, SDS-PAGE, and Western blotting. We observed that the A. niger prolyl endoprotease works optimally at 4-5 pH, remains stable at 2 pH, and is completely resistant to digestion with pepsin. Moreover, the A. niger-derived enzyme efficiently degraded all tested T cell stimulatory peptides as well as intact gluten molecules. On average, the endoprotease from A. niger degraded gluten peptides 60 times faster than a prolyl oligopeptidase. Together these results indicate that the enzyme from A. niger efficiently degrades gluten proteins. Future studies are required to determine if the prolyl endoprotease can be used as an oral supplement to reduce gluten intake in patients.
Proline‐specific endoproteases have been successfully used in, for example, the in‐situ degradation of gluten, the hydrolysis of bitter peptides, the reduction of haze during beer production, and the ...generation of peptides for mass spectroscopy and proteomics applications. Here we present the crystal structure of the extracellular proline‐specific endoprotease from Aspergillus niger (AnPEP), a member of the S28 peptidase family with rarely observed true proline‐specific endoprotease activity. Family S28 proteases have a conventional Ser‐Asp‐His catalytic triad, but their oxyanion‐stabilizing hole shows a glutamic acid, an amino acid not previously observed in this role. Since these enzymes have an acidic pH optimum, the presence of a glutamic acid in the oxyanion hole may confine their activity to an acidic pH. Yet, considering the presence of the conventional catalytic triad, it is remarkable that the A. niger enzyme remains active down to pH 1.5. The determination of the primary cleavage site of cytochrome c along with molecular dynamics‐assisted docking studies indicate that the active site pocket of AnPEP can accommodate a reverse turn of approximately 12 amino acids with proline at the S1 specificity pocket. Comparison with the structures of two S28‐proline‐specific exopeptidases reveals not only a more spacious active site cavity but also the absence of any putative binding sites for amino‐ and carboxyl‐terminal residues as observed in the exopeptidases, explaining AnPEP's observed endoprotease activity.
To assesses the safety and efficacy of Aspergillus niger prolyl endoprotease (AN-PEP) to mitigate the immunogenic effects of gluten in celiac patients.
Patients with initial diagnosis of celiac ...disease as confirmed by positive serology with subtotal or total villous atrophy on duodenal biopsies who adhere to a strict gluten-free diet (GFD) resulting in normalised antibodies and mucosal healing classified as Marsh 0 or I were included. In a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled pilot study, patients consumed toast (approximately 7 g/d gluten) with AN-PEP for 2 wk (safety phase). After a 2-wk washout period with adherence of the usual GFD, 14 patients were randomised to gluten intake with either AN-PEP or placebo for 2 wk (efficacy phase). Measurements at baseline included complaints, quality-of-life, serum antibodies, immunophenotyping of T-cells and duodenal mucosa immunohistology. Furthermore, serum and quality of life questionnaires were collected during and after the safety, washout and efficacy phase. Duodenal biopsies were collected after the safety phase and after the efficacy phase. A change in histological evaluation according to the modified Marsh classification was the primary endpoint.
In total, 16 adults were enrolled in the study. No serious adverse events occurred during the trial and no patients withdrew during the trial. The mean score for the gastrointestinal subcategory of the celiac disease quality (CDQ) was relatively high throughout the study, indicating that AN-PEP was well tolerated. In the efficacy phase, the CDQ scores of patients consuming gluten with placebo or gluten with AN-PEP did not significantly deteriorate and moreover no differences between the groups were observed. During the efficacy phase, neither the placebo nor the AN-PEP group developed significant antibody titers. The IgA-EM concentrations remained negative in both groups. Two patients were excluded from entering the efficacy phase as their mucosa showed an increase of two Marsh steps after the safety phase, yet with undetectable serum antibodies, while 14 patients were considered histologically stable on gluten with AN-PEP. Also after the efficacy phase, no significant deterioration was observed regarding immunohistological and flow cytometric evaluation in the group consuming placebo compared to the group receiving AN-PEP. Furthermore, IgA-tTG deposit staining increased after 2 wk of gluten compared to baseline in four out of seven patients on placebo. In the seven patients receiving AN-PEP, one patient showed increased and one showed decreased IgA-tTG deposits.
AN-PEP appears to be well tolerated. However, the primary endpoint was not met due to lack of clinical deterioration upon placebo, impeding an effect of AN-PEP.
This study investigated the application of Aspergilloglutamic peptidase (AGP) on porcine hemoglobin decolorization. AGP from fungus Aspergillus niger is identified to possess a high preference ...towards the histidine residues. As histidine residues in hemoglobin are known to coordinate the heme group within the globin molecule, we therefore hypothesized that incubating hemoglobin with a histidine‐specific protease would efficiently separate the non‐heme peptides from the heme‐enriched peptides with a minimum degree of hydrolysis. AGP‐decolored porcine hemoglobin hydrolysates were assessed on their functional (for example, color, emulsification, foaming, and water binding) and sensory properties. The results were compared with commercially available blood‐derived proteins (subtilisin‐decolored hemoglobin hydrolysates and plasma protein). It was observed that AGP is able to effectively decolor hemoglobin. The degree of hydrolysis (DH) increased less than 3% using AGP to achieve 90% color reduction of hemoglobin, whereas a DH increase of more than 20% is needed using subtilisin. The AGP‐decolored hemoglobin hydrolysates (AGP‐Hb) possess good emulsification, foaming, and water binding properties, which are better or comparable with the plasma protein, and much better than the subtilisin‐decolored hemoglobin hydrolysates (subtilisin‐Hb). The model canned meat with addition of AGP‐Hb showed the highest value in hardness, springiness, and chewiness from the texture analysis. Furthermore, the canned meat with AGP‐Hb was found to have a better sensory profile than the ones with addition of subtilisin‐Hb and plasma protein.
The haze-forming peptides and proteins present in beer mainly originate from the grains used. Such grains, typically barley and wheat, also incorporate gluten. Although partially hydrolyzed during ...brewing, glutencontaining protein material remains present in the final beers. Glutensensitive people might therefore not be able to consume beer without an adverse response. AN-PEP, the proline-specific peptidase in Brewers Clarex, is commercially applied to selectively degrade proline-rich, haze-forming peptides and proteins during beer fermentation. The unusually high percentage of proline in known celiac-related gluten epitopes suggests that they form ideal substrates for AN-PEP as well. We confirmed that in beers prepared with AN-PEP, gluten levels were well below 20 mg/kg based on the established competitive R5 ELISA method. We used a sensitive LC-MS/MS method developed in-house to identify the peptides. Only in beers brewed through a conventional process could we find epitope-containing peptides, even in beers that contained less than 20 mg/kg of gluten based on the ELISA. So even though the MS method is qualitative and not quantitative, it provided a more detailed view of the fate of gluten during brewing. Specifically, these data indicate that AN-PEP is able to degrade all known immunogenic gluten epitopes in beer. We conclude that apart from its current application as a beer stabilizer, AN-PEP has the additional benefit of exhaustive degradation of all potentially problematic gluten epitopes.
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