Probability Models Long, Jed; Marshall, Alan; Feng, Zhiqiang
Encyclopedia of Human Geography,
2020
Book Chapter
Probability models are used throughout human geography and represent the statistical foundation for nearly every possible model we employ in quantitative geographical analysis. Probability models are ...rooted in probability theory and are derived from the idea that the variables we observe can be modeled as random (or stochastic) processes governed by some known or estimated probability distribution. In this article, we define probability models and probabilities. We then introduce probability distributions, which are then linked to many of the popular types of quantitative models employed in geographical analysis. Finally, we provide examples of how probability models and distributions are linked to socio-spatial processes commonly encountered in human geography.
When used with large energy sparkers, marine multichannel small-scale high-resolution seismic detection technology has a high resolution, high-detection precision, a wide applicable range, and is ...very flexible. Positive results have been achieved in submarine geological research, particularly in the investigation of marine gas hydrates. However, the amount of traveltime difference information is reduced for the velocity analysis under conditions of a shorter spread length, thus leading to poorer focusing of the velocity spectrum energy group and a lower accuracy of the velocity analysis. It is thus currently debatable whether the velocity analysis accuracy of short-arrangement multichannel seismic detection technology is able to meet the requirements of practical application in natural gas hydrate exploration. Therefore, in this study the bottom boundary of gas hydrates（Bottom Simulating Reflector, BSR） is used to conduct numerical simulation to discuss the accuracy of the velocity analysis related to such technology. Results show that a higher dominant frequency and smaller sampling interval are not only able to improve the seismic resolution, but they also compensate for the defects of the short-arrangement, thereby improving the accuracy of the velocity analysis. In conclusion, the accuracy of the velocity analysis in this small-scale, high-resolution, multi-channel seismic detection technology meets the requirements of natural gas hydrate exploration.
Objective: To measure movements of markers over the primary site and associated mimic muscles in certain facial expressions, for evaluating facial paresis and synkinesis. Methods: Participants ...included 22 normal subjects aged 45e66 years. Maximum shift(Smax) and velocity(Vmax)were measured using a custom-designed 3-D dynamic quantitative analysis system of facial motion(3-D ASFM) based on motion capture technology. Measures were taken from peri-oral muscles during forceful brow raising and tight eye closure, and from muscles around the eye during grinning, right/left/bilateral mouth corner raising and smiling. Results: 1) During forceful brow raising, Smaxwas 3.65e4.46 mm for markers over perioral muscles, with the marker over the nasolabial fold showing a Vmaxgreater than others(60.60 mm/s on left and 62.70 mm/s on right). 2) In tight eye closure, Smaxof perioral muscle markers was 1.58e1.92 mm, with Vmaxbeing 11.40e14.76 mm/s. 3) In grinning, the largest eye muscle marker Smaxwas seen at the lower lid(3.93 mm on left and 4.15 mm on right) and the smallest at the inner canthus(1.59 mm on left and 1.53 mm on right), with the largest Vmaxseen at the upper lid and smallest also at the inner canthus(11.71 mm/s on left and11.09 mm/s on right). 4) In smiling, the largest non-oral Smaxand Vmaxwere seen at the upper lid(3.05 mm and 36.14 mm/s on left and 2.53 mm and 28.90 mm/s on right) and the smallest also at the inner canthus(0.69 mm and 7.22 mm/s on left and 0.77 mm and 7.80 mm/s on right). 5) In right mouth corner raising, Smaxand Vmaxat lateral and medial canthus and at lower lid were greater on right than left, while those at upper lid and brow were slightly greater on left than right. 6) In left mouth corner raising, Smaxand Vmaxat lateral canthus and upper and lower lids were greater on left than right. Conclusions: There are no absolute immobile points on the face when making facial expressions. In addition to the primary movement site, there are associated movements at other points on the face with consistent Smaxand Vmax.In assessing facial paresis and synkinesis, physiological associated facial movements should be taken into consideration.
ABSTRACT： Based on the integrated subsurface data, including those of over 600 m drilled cores, more than 30 drilled wells and 600 km^2 three-dimensional （3D） seismic-reflection data of the study ...area, the characteristics of the lake-floor fan of lower Yaojia （姚家） Formation have been clarified. An evident lacustrine slope break and a steep slope belt developed in the west of Songliao （松辽） basin during depositional period of Qingshankou （青山口）-Yaojia formations （K2）. The slope gradient was about 15 m/kin. During the depositional period of lower Yaojia Formation, the lake shrank and the shore line of the western Songiiao basin shifted to the lacustrine slope-break. The wedge-shaped sediment body, which is interpreted as the lowstand system tract of SQyl （LSTy1）, developed in the area below the slope-break. The LSTy1 is pinched out in the west of the study area. As to the thickness of LSTy1, it is thicker in the east with 50 m in its thickness than in the west. The LSTy1, rich in sandstone, can be divided into lower part LSTy1L and upper part LSTy1u based on two onlap seismic reflection phases, and core and logging data clearly. The various sediments＇ gravity flow deposits developed and the complex of lake-floor fan formed in the LSTy1 under the slope-break in the western part of the central depression region. The lake-floor fan consists of various sediments＇ gravity flow deposits, including： （1） turbidity deposits with characteristics of Bouma sequences; （2） sand-bearing muddy debrite dominated by mud and mixed by sand; （3） mud-bearing sandy debrites characterized by dominated sand and mixed by mud; （4） sandy debris laminar flow deposits with massive or inclined bedding, and （5） sandy slump deposits developed as deformational sedimentary structure. During the lower lake-level period （LSTy1L）, the western clino-form region was erosion or sediment pass-by area; the terrigenous clasttc was directly trans-ported to deep-water area, converted to channelized sandy debris flow, and combined with slump derived gravity flow deposited in the lower part of the slope and the deep depression region, which then formed lake-floor fans. During higher lake-level period （LSTylu）, terrigenous clastic deposited in the upper part of the slope, and formed deltaic depositional system; while in the lower part of the slope, the deep depression area was filled by lake-floor fans which were mainly slump deposits. The sandstone bodies of the lake-floor fan are the favorable targets of subtle oil-bearing traps in the western part of the central depression region.
In eukaryotes, there are at least 60 members of the DExD/H helicase family, many of which are able to sense viral nucleic acids. By screening all known family members, we identified the helicase ...DHX33 as a novel double-stranded RNA （dsRNA） sensor in myeloid dendritic cells （mDCs）. The knockdown of DHX33 using small heteroduplex RNA （shRNA） blocked the ability of mDCs to produce type I interferon （IFN） in response to poly hC and reovirus. The HELICc domain of DHX33 was shown to bind poly hC. The interaction between DHX33 and IPS-1 is mediated by the HELICc region of DHX33 and the C-terminal domain of IPS-1 （also referred to MAVS and VISA）. The inhibition of DHX33 expression by RNA interference blocked the poly hC-induced activation of MAP kinases, NF-KB and IRF3. The interaction between the helicase DHX33 and IPS-1 was independent of RIG-I/MDA5 and may be a novel pathway for sensing poly I-C and RNA viruses in mDCs.
The construction of fuzzy conditional relations has been considered in Raha's similarity-based inference schema, but inappropriate conclusions will be drawn in some cases due to the use of a single ...modification function. This paper presents an approximate reasoning method to generate induced conditional relations from distance measures. Two types of modification functions are given, and the type can be chosen according to the inclusion relation between a given fact and the antecedent of a rule. The fuzzy logic operators for constructing conditional relations are discussed, and the monotonicity and approximation properties of the reasoning scheme are inspected. By comparing and analyzing some basic properties of the three reasoning methods, some advantages can be found in the proposed scheme. An example of weld forming prediction is provided to illustrate the application of the algorithm.
With the help of a power-domain non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) scheme, satellite networks can simultaneously serve multiple users within limited time/spectrum resource block. However, the ...existence of channel estimation errors inevitably degrade the judgment on users' channel state information (CSI) accuracy, thus affecting the user pairing processing and suppressing the superiority of the NOMA scheme. Inspired by the advantages of machine learning (ML) algorithms, we propose an improved support vector machine (SVM) scheme to reduce the inappropriate user pairing risks and enhance the performance of NOMA based satellite networks with imperfect CSI. Particularly, a genetic algorithm (GA) is employed to optimize the regularization and kernel parameters of the SVM, which effectively improves the classification accuracy of the proposed scheme. Simulations are provided to demonstrate that the performance of the proposed method is better than that with random user paring strategy, especially in the scenario with a large number of users.
Small area analysis of sociodemographic change over time is often impeded by the changing configuration of census zones for each decennial UK census. Approaches for matching zone configurations ...exist, but these typically require population estimation techniques, which inevitably involve some error. Because of the postcode-based geographical zoning system used in Scottish censuses, it is possible to create a local-area geography which is consistent for recent censuses. Here we present a methodology used to create three sets of consistent areas through time (CATTs) that can be used for analysing comparable small area data output from the 1981, 1991 and 2001 Censuses.
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