We present the results of optical (R band) photometric and polarimetric monitoring and Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) imaging of the blazar S5 0716+714 along with Fermi gamma -ray data during a ...multi-waveband outburst in 2011 October. We analyze total and polarized intensity images of the blazar obtained with the VLBA at 43 GHz during and after the outburst. Monotonic rotation of the linear polarization vector at a rate of > ~50degrees per night coincided with a sharp maximum in gamma -ray and optical flux. At the same time, within the uncertainties, a new superluminal knot appeared with an apparent speed of 21 + or - 2c. The general multi-frequency behavior of the outburst can be explained within the framework of a shock wave propagating along a helical path in the blazar's jet.
After several years of quiescence, the blazar CTA 102 underwent an exceptional outburst in 2012 September–October. The flare was tracked from γ-ray to near-infrared (NIR) frequencies, including Fermi ...and Swift data as well as photometric and polarimetric data from several observatories. An intensive Glast-Agile support programme of the Whole Earth Blazar Telescope (GASP–WEBT) collaboration campaign in optical and NIR bands, with an addition of previously unpublished archival data and extension through fall 2015, allows comparison of this outburst with the previous activity period of this blazar in 2004–2005. We find remarkable similarity between the optical and γ-ray behaviour of CTA 102 during the outburst, with a time lag between the two light curves of ≈1 h, indicative of cospatiality of the optical and γ-ray emission regions. The relation between the γ-ray and optical fluxes is consistent with the synchrotron self-Compton (SSC) mechanism, with a quadratic dependence of the SSC γ-ray flux on the synchrotron optical flux evident in the post-outburst stage. However, the γ-ray/optical relationship is linear during the outburst; we attribute this to changes in the Doppler factor. A strong harder-when-brighter spectral dependence is seen both the in γ-ray and optical non-thermal emission. This hardening can be explained by convexity of the UV–NIR spectrum that moves to higher frequencies owing to an increased Doppler shift as the viewing angle decreases during the outburst stage. The overall pattern of Stokes parameter variations agrees with a model of a radiating blob or shock wave that moves along a helical path down the jet.
Abstract
We study the optical flux and polarization variability of the binary black hole blazar OJ 287 using quasi-simultaneous observations from 2015 to 2023 carried out using telescopes in the USA, ...Japan, Russia, Crimea, and Bulgaria. This is one of the most extensive quasi-simultaneous optical flux and polarization variability studies of OJ 287. OJ 287 showed large amplitude, ∼3.0 mag flux variability, large changes of ∼37% in degree of polarization, and a large swing of ∼215° in the angle of the electric vector of polarization. During the period of observation, several flares in flux were detected. Those flares are correlated with a rapid increase in the degree of polarization and swings in electric vector of polarization angle. A peculiar behavior of anticorrelation between flux and polarization degree, accompanied by a nearly constant polarization angle, was detected from JD 2,458,156 to JD 2,458,292. We briefly discuss some explanations for the flux and polarization variations observed in OJ 287.
We present the results of optical (R-band) photometric and polarimetric monitoring and Very Long Baseline Array imaging of the blazar S4 0954+658, along with Fermi gamma -ray data during a ...multi-waveband outburst in 2011 March-April. After a faint state with a brightness level R ~ 17.6 mag registered in the first half of 2011 January, the optical brightness of the source started to rise and reached ~14.8 mag during the middle of March, showing flare-like behavior. The most spectacular case of intranight variability was observed during the night of 2011 March 9, when the blazar brightened by ~0.7 mag within 7 hr. During the rise of the flux, the position angle of the optical polarization rotated smoothly over more than 300degrees. At the same time, within 1sigma uncertainty, a new superluminal knot appeared with an apparent speed of 19.0+ or -0.3c. We have very strong evidence that this knot is associated with the multi-waveband outburst in 2011 March-April. We also analyze the multi-frequency behavior of S4 0954+658 during a number of minor outbursts from 2008 August to 2012 April. We find some evidence of connections between at least two additional superluminal ejecta and near-simultaneous optical flares.
Context. The BL Lac object 3C 371 was observed by the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) for approximately a year, between July 2019 and July 2020, with an unmatched two-minute imaging ...cadence. In parallel, the Whole Earth Blazar Telescope (WEBT) Collaboration organized an extensive observing campaign, providing three years of continuous optical monitoring between 2018 and 2020. These datasets allow for a thorough investigation of the variability of the source. Aims. The goal of this study is to evaluate the optical variability of 3C 371. Taking advantage of the remarkable cadence of TESS data, we aim to characterize the intra-day variability (IDV) displayed by the source and identify its shortest variability timescale. With this estimate, constraints on the size of the emitting region and black hole mass can be calculated. Moreover, WEBT data are used to investigate long-term variability (LTV), including in terms of the spectral behavior of the source and the polarization variability. Based on the derived characteristics, we aim to extract information on the origin of the variability on different timescales. Methods. We evaluated the variability of 3C 371 by applying the variability amplitude tool, which quantifies variability of the emission. Moreover, we employed common tools, such as ANOVA (ANalysis Of VAariance) tests, wavelet and power spectral density (PSD) analyses to characterize the shortest variability timescales present in the emission and the underlying noise affecting the data. We evaluated the short- and long-term color behavior to understand its spectral behavior. The polarized emission was analyzed, studying its variability and possible rotation patterns of the electric vector position angle (EVPA). Flux distributions of the IDV and LTV were also studied with the aim being to link the flux variations to turbulent and/or accretion-disk-related processes. Results. Our ANOVA and wavelet analyses reveal several entangled variability timescales. We observe a clear increase in the variability amplitude with increasing width of the time intervals evaluated. We are also able to resolve significant variations on timescales of as little as ∼0.5 h. The PSD analysis reveals a red-noise spectrum with a break at IDV timescales. The spectral analysis shows a mild bluer-when-brighter (BWB) trend on long timescales. On short timescales, mixed BWB, achromatic and redder-when-brighter signatures can be observed. The polarized emission shows an interesting slow EVPA rotation during the flaring period, where a simple stochastic model can be excluded as the origin with a 3 σ significance. The flux distributions show a preference for a Gaussian model for the IDV, and suggest it may be linked to turbulent processes, while the LTV is better represented by a log-normal distribution and may have a disk-related origin.
ABSTRACT
Among active galactic nuclei, blazars show extreme variability properties. We here investigate the case of the BL Lac object S4 0954+65 with data acquired in 2019–2020 by the Transiting ...Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) and by the Whole Earth Blazar Telescope (WEBT) Collaboration. The 2-min cadence optical light curves provided by TESS during three observing sectors of nearly 1 month each allow us to study the fast variability in great detail. We identify several characteristic short-term time-scales, ranging from a few hours to a few days. However, these are not persistent, as they differ in the various TESS sectors. The long-term photometric and polarimetric optical and radio monitoring undertaken by the WEBT brings significant additional information, revealing that (i) in the optical, long-term flux changes are almost achromatic, while the short-term ones are strongly chromatic; (ii) the radio flux variations at 37 GHz follow those in the optical with a delay of about 3 weeks; (iii) the range of variation of the polarization degree and angle is much larger in the optical than in the radio band, but the mean polarization angles are similar; (iv) the optical long-term variability is characterized by a quasi-periodicity of about 1 month. We explain the source behaviour in terms of a rotating inhomogeneous helical jet, whose pitch angle can change in time.
We present and analyze the monitoring results of the blazar 1156+295 in radio, optical, and gamma ranges in 2005–2020. After a long period of relative quietness at the end of 2017, a sharp increase ...in activity occurred in all spectral ranges, from radio to gamma. The connection between events that took place in different ranges has been studied. Photometric variability in the optical-infrared region is explained by the presence of a variable component with a constant on average power-law relative energy distribution in the spectrum (
F
ν
~ ν
–1.4
). Separate sources of polarized radiation with a relatively high degree of polarization are identified. The synchrotron nature of the components responsible for the activity is beyond doubt. During VLBI observations, four components moving at superluminal speeds were found; a connection has been established between the instants of their appearance and events in all spectral ranges. It is noted that the difference in the values of the spectral indices for different time intervals does not allow to explain the variability of the flux by geometric factors only (by the change in the Doppler factor due to the change in the angle between the line of sight and the subluminal motion direction of the emitting ensemble of electrons). For different time intervals, the energy distributions of electrons in ensembles should be different.
Blazars are active galactic nuclei (AGN) with relativistic jets whose non-thermal radiation is extremely variable on various timescales
. This variability seems mostly random, although some ...quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs), implying systematic processes, have been reported in blazars and other AGN. QPOs with timescales of days or hours are especially rare
in AGN and their nature is highly debated, explained by emitting plasma moving helically inside the jet
, plasma instabilities
or orbital motion in an accretion disc
. Here we report results of intense optical and γ-ray flux monitoring of BL Lacertae (BL Lac) during a dramatic outburst in 2020 (ref.
). BL Lac, the prototype of a subclass of blazars
, is powered by a 1.7 × 10
M
(ref.
) black hole in an elliptical galaxy (distance = 313 megaparsecs (ref.
)). Our observations show QPOs of optical flux and linear polarization, and γ-ray flux, with cycles as short as approximately 13 h during the highest state of the outburst. The QPO properties match the expectations of current-driven kink instabilities
near a recollimation shock about 5 parsecs (pc) from the black hole in the wake of an apparent superluminal feature moving down the jet. Such a kink is apparent in a microwave Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) image.
Context. Blazar AO 0235+164 , located at a redshift of z = 0.94, has undergone several sharp multi-spectral-range flaring episodes over recent decades. In particular, the episodes that peaked in 2008 ...and 2015, which were subject to extensive multi-wavelength coverage, exhibited an interesting behavior. Aims. We study the actual origin of these two observed flares by constraining the properties of the observed photo-polarimetric variability as well as of the broadband spectral energy distribution and the observed time-evolution behavior of the source. We use ultra-high-resolution total-flux and polarimetric very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) imaging. Methods. The analysis of VLBI images allowed us to constrain kinematic and geometrical parameters of the 7 mm jet. We used the discrete correlation function to compute the statistical correlation and the delays between emission at different spectral ranges. The multi-epoch modeling of the spectral energy distributions allowed us to propose specific models of the emission; in particular, with the aim to model the unusual spectral features observed in this source in the X-ray region of the spectrum during strong multi spectral-range flares. Results. We find that these X-ray spectral features can be explained by an emission component originating in a separate particle distribution than the one responsible for the two standard blazar bumps. This is in agreement with the results of our correlation analysis, where we did not find a strong correlation between the X-ray and the remaining spectral ranges. We find that both external Compton-dominated and synchrotron self-Compton-dominated models are able to explain the observed spectral energy distributions. However, the synchrotron self-Compton models are strongly favored by the delays and geometrical parameters inferred from the observations.
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The monitoring results of the blazar B1308+326 in the optical and radio bands in 2011–2018 are presented and analyzed. An optical flare of the object associated with the passage of revealed ...superluminal components through the radio core, coinciding in time with a γ-ray outburst, as well as outbursts at 43 GHz, were detected. The photometric variability is explained by a variable component with a constant at average power-law relative energy distribution in the spectrum (
F
ν
~ ν
–1.6
). This fact, as well as the high observed degree of polarization (up to 40%), indicates its synchrotron nature. Separate sources of polarized radiation with a high degree of polarization and a direction either parallel or perpendicular to the direction of the jet are distinguished, which gives information about the magnetic field’s direction in the jet during outbursts and allows us to make a conclusion for their appearance: the passage of a shock wave over the jet or the appearance of radiating electronic ensembles.
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