Ficus krishnae stem bark and leaves are used for diabetes treatment in traditional medicines. Stem bark of F. krishnae was sequentially extracted with hexane, methanol and water, and these extracts ...were tested for their antihyperglyceamic activity by oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) in overnight fasted glucose loaded normal rats. Hexane extract showed significant glucose lowering activity in OGTT, and the triterpene alcohols (cycloartenol+24-methylenecycloartanol) (CA+24-MCA) were isolated together from it by activity guided isolation and characterized by NMR and mass spectroscopy. The ratio of the chemical constituents CA and 24-MCA in (CA+24-MCA) was determined as 2.27:1.00 by chemical derivatization and gas chromatographic quantification. (CA+24-MCA) in high fat diet-streptozotocin induced type II diabetic rats showed significant antidiabetes activity at 1 mg/kg and ameliorated derailed blood glucose and other serum biochemical parameters. Cytoprotective activity of (CA+24-MCA) from glucose toxicity was evaluated in cultured RIN-5F cells by MTT assay and fluorescent microscopy. (CA+24-MCA) in in vitro studies showed enhanced cell viability in RIN-5F cells and significant protection of beta cells from glucose toxicity. Both in in vivo and in vitro studies (CA+24-MCA) showed enhancement in insulin release from the beta cells. In short term toxicity studies in mice (CA+24-MCA) did not show any conspicuous toxic symptoms. The combination of the phytosterols (CA+24-MCA) obtained through activity guided isolation of the stem bark of F. krishnae showed significant activity, and therefore is a promising candidate for new generation antidiabetes drug development.
Mast seeding and associated events in Melocanna baccifera, the largest fruit producing bamboo, is an enigma. So far there are no comprehensive accounts on its flowering phenology, fruiting dynamics ...and animal interactions. In this study, spanning over 13 years (2009 to 2022), we observed eight M. baccifera clumps in JNTBGRI Bambusetum from flowering initiation, fruiting to eventual death. Flowering phenology, floral characteristics, floret types, breeding system, bee visitation, pollination, fruit production and predators were recorded; predation patterns were correlated with fruit chemistry. Flowering duration of clumps ranged from 20 (March 2009-October 2010) to 120 (September 2012-August 2022) months. Bisexual florets are dichogamous and protogynous; and female duration (22-72 h) is many times higher than male duration (2-6 h). The highest ever fruit production for an individual bamboo clump (456.67 Kg) was recorded. Of the total fallen fruits (38371), 38.11% were predated, 43.80% good fruits (no predator hits) and 18.09% immature fruits. A positive correlation between reward (fruits) versus predation was observed, especially in short intervals of high fruit production. Pollen predators (Apis cerana indica, Halictus taprabonae, Braunsapis cupulifera, Trigona iridipennis), fruit predators, ranging from arthropods to mammals, viz., millipede (Spinotarsus colosseus), slug (Mariaella dussumieri), snails (Cryptozona bistrialis, Macrochlamys sp.), borers (Achroia grisella, Blattella germanica), mammals (monkeys Macaca radiata, rats Rattus rattus, porcupine Hystrix indica, wild boar Sus scrofa, palm civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), seedling predators (rabbit Lepus nigricollis, deer Axis axis), and insect/pest predators (ants Crematogaster biroi, Oecophylla smaragdina, mantis Euchomenella indica) were identified. Fruit predation is linked to its age and chemistry. Apart from new insights on flowering phenology, breeding system, pollination and fruiting dynamics, this study demonstrates the vibrant interaction between M. baccifera flowers/fruits and visitors/predators, and provides significant leads towards elucidating the cause of rat multiplication and other events associated with its gregarious flowering.
Centellosides viz., asiatic acid, madecassic acid, asiaticoside, madecassoside, are the major bioactive molecules in Centella asiatica. In this study madecassic acid:asiatic acid, ...madecassoside:asiaticoside (C6-hydroxylation versus non-hydroxylation) and asiaticoside:asiatic acid, madecassoside:madecassic acid (C28-glycoside versus aglycone) ratios in 50 C. asiatica accessions originally collected from their natural habitats in south India and grown under identical ecological conditions for six generations were determined using validated HPTLC-densitometry protocols. Asiatic acid, madecassic acid, asiaticoside and madecassoside contents ranged from 0.00-0.29% (average 0.03 ± 0.06%; 28 accessions recorded asiatic acid content as zero), 0.02-0.72% (0.12 ± 0.13%), 0.04-2.41% (0.44 ± 0.52%) and 0.15-5.27% (1.59 ± 1.26%), respectively. Distinctly, C6-hydroxylated (madecassic acid:asiatic acid 4.00, madecassoside:asiaticoside 3.61) and C28-glycosylated (asiaticoside:asiatic acid 14.67, madecassoside: madecassic acid 13.25) centellosides dominated over the respective non-derivatized entities. Our results infer that both C6-hydroxylation by CYP450-dependent monooxygenases and C28-glycosylation by UDP-Glc glucosyltransferases are dominant bioconversion steps in C. asiatica. Besides, this study discovered six elite lines of C. asiatica, with their (asiaticoside + madecassoside) contents above the industrial benchmark (≥ 4%) from south India. Two elite clones with asiaticoside contents ≥ 2% were also identified. Standardization of the agrotechniques of these elite lines could lead to their industrial applications. Further, this study emphasizes the need for standardizing all four centellosides as biomarkers in C. asiatica raw drugs, pharmaceutical and cosmetic products.
Ganoderma is a genus of medicinal mushrooms. Phytochemical studies led to the isolation of over 380 terpenoids (ganoderic acids, lucidenic acids, meroterpenoids) from genus Ganoderma. More than 30 ...steroidal compounds were also isolated from the genus. Terpenoids, steroids (and polysaccharides) isolated from Ganoderma showed significant biological activities. Display omitted
•Ganoderma is a genus of medicinal mushrooms.•Over 430 secondary metabolites were isolated from genus Ganoderma.•Over 380 terpenoids (ganoderic/lucidenic acids, meroterpenoids) were isolated.•Over 30 steroids were also isolated from Ganoderma.•Terpenoids and steroids from Ganoderma showed significant biological activities.
Ganoderma is a genus of medicinal mushrooms. This review deals with secondary metabolites isolated from Ganoderma and their biological significance. Phytochemical studies over the last 40years led to the isolation of 431 secondary metabolites from various Ganoderma species. The major secondary compounds isolated are (a) C30 lanostanes (ganoderic acids), (b) C30 lanostanes (aldehydes, alcohols, esters, glycosides, lactones, ketones), (c) C27 lanostanes (lucidenic acids), (d) C27 lanostanes (alcohols, lactones, esters), (e) C24, C25 lanostanes (f) C30 pentacyclic triterpenes, (g) meroterpenoids, (h) farnesyl hydroquinones (meroterpenoids), (i) C15 sesquiterpenoids, (j) steroids, (k) alkaloids, (l) prenyl hydroquinone (m) benzofurans, (n) benzopyran-4-one derivatives and (o) benzenoid derivatives. Ganoderma lucidum is the species extensively studied for its secondary metabolites and biological activities. Ganoderma applanatum, Ganoderma colossum, Ganoderma sinense, Ganoderma cochlear, Ganoderma tsugae, Ganoderma amboinense, Ganoderma orbiforme, Ganoderma resinaceum, Ganoderma hainanense, Ganoderma concinna, Ganoderma pfeifferi, Ganoderma neo-japonicum, Ganoderma tropicum, Ganoderma australe, Ganoderma carnosum, Ganoderma fornicatum, Ganoderma lipsiense (synonym G. applanatum), Ganoderma mastoporum, Ganoderma theaecolum, Ganoderma boninense, Ganoderma capense and Ganoderma annulare are the other Ganoderma species subjected to phytochemical studies. Further phytochemical studies on Ganoderma could lead to the discovery of hitherto unknown biologically active secondary metabolites.
•Centella asiatica (CA) has a growing demand in cosmetic, pharmaceutical industries.•So far 139 secondary metabolites were isolated from CA.•Asiaticoside, madecassoside and their sapogenins are the ...major bioactive molecules.•Phenolics in CA and their antioxidant activity justify its use as a food ingredient.•Conventional and alternative technologies are adopted to obtain enriched CA biomass.
Phytochemistry of Centella asiatica (CA) gained momentum after the discovery of asiaticoside in the early 1940s. Though there is lot of literature on this precious herb, its chemistry has not been comprehensively reviewed. Moreover, several duplicate names, synonyms and contradictory findings were observed in CA literature. The traditional, food and vegetable, pharmaceutical and cosmetic uses of CA are steadily on the rise, resulting in its ever increasing biomass requirements.
This article is an inclusive review of the last eight decades of chemistry of CA. Its biological activities, food and beverage, cosmetic applications and natural and alternate biomass sources are also assessed. CA literature for this review was gathered from web-based resources such as PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar, and chemical structures were drawn using ChemDraw software.
So far 139 secondary metabolites were isolated from CA, viz., ursane-type triterpenes (11), oleanane-type triterpenes (5), ursane-type triterpene glycosides (30), oleanane-type triterpene glycosides (14), dammarane-type triterpene glycosides (15), steroids (4), steroid glycosides (2), flavonoids (18), polyacetylenes (9), phenolic acids (13) and other miscellaneous compounds (18). Of these 139 compounds, 70 are new entities described for the first time. Most prominent CA metabolites are the four ursane type triterpenes, viz., asiatic acid, madecassic acid, asiaticoside and madecassoside. Naming issues and contradictory findings are resolved in this article. Biological activities of CA and its secondary metabolites are also reviewed. The wide use of CA as a vegetable and food ingredient is justified by the antioxidant activities of its phenolics, flavonoids and other constituents. The traditional uses, geographical sources, conservation status, industrial demand, elite clones, alternative sources, chemical variability, ecological and other allied parameters and quality control requirements of CA are also discussed in the context of its chemistry and secondary metabolites.
This review emphasizes the need to study the biology of the least investigated CA metabolites, viz., oleanane-type triterpenoids, caffeoyl quinic acids, polyacetylenes, phenolics, miscellaneous compounds. Moreover, a comprehensive description of the secondary metabolites in CA will aid its future chemistry, biosynthesis, chemical transformation and biological activity studies.
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High domestic and export demands are prompting the uncontrolled collection of the nootropic herb Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. (BM) from its natural habitats in India; therefore, selection and ...cultivation of elite genotypes is one of the priorities for generating its quality biomass for industrial purposes. Here sixty BM accessions collected from diverse geographical regions of south India were screened for the two major bioactive dammarane-type triterpenoid saponins, bacoside A (BA) and bacopaside I (BI), by HPTLC-densitometry. Among these sixty accessions, BA, BI and (BA+BI) contents ranged from 0.36 ± 0.05 to 5.68 ± 0.18%, 0.00 ± 0.00 to 1.53 ± 0.12% and 0.41 ± 0.13 to 7.17 ± 0.35%, respectively. Industries consider BM accessions with (BA+BI) ≥ 5.5% as elite lines; this study identified eight elite accessions (1/Bm-11, 2/Bm-55, 3/Bm-57, 11/Bm-68, 19/Bm-76, 33/Bm-90, 36/Bm-93, 44/Bm-102) of BM, satisfying this benchmark. In bi-location trials, six BM elite genotypes were cultivated at two geographical locations (plot 1, low altitude and plot 2, high altitude). In Plot 1, highest (BA+BI) contents and biomass yields were observed in 2/Bm-55 (6.60 ± 0.09%) and 19/Bm-76 (4090.28 Kg/ha, fresh wt.), respectively. Elite accession 2/Bm-55 was subjected to agrotechnology standardization trails at Plot 1 with 10 combinations of nitrogen-phosphorous-potassium (N-P-K), cow dung, cocopeat and soil (only) treatments. Two treatments, N:P:K 150:90:90 and soil (only), gave elite contents of BA+BI (≥ 5.5%) (5.89%, 6.62%) and high biomass yields (64152.84 Kg/ha, fresh wt., 63076.45 Kg/ha, fresh wt.). Significantly, five of the eight elite BM accessions identified viz., 1/Bm-11, 3/Bm-57, 44/Bm-102, 36/Bm-93, 19/Bm-76, were collected from ≤ 10 m altitude locations; this study provides experimental evidence to the preference of BM to low altitude, wet and marshy habitats. Briefly, this study reports conservation, sustainable utilization and edaphic-ecological preferences of the natural resources of this high value memory enhancing herb.
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•Sixty Bacopa monnieri field accessions from south India were collected.•Quantified bacoside A and bacopaside I contents using HPTLC-densitometry.•Discovered eight elite accessions, bi-location trials were conducted.•Two treatments in agro-trials gave elite bioactive and biomass yields.•B. monnieri display preferences to low altitude wet, muddy and marshy habitats.
Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (CA) has high demand in traditional medicine, skin care, pharmaceutical industries and as a leafy vegetable. India and Madagascar are its key producers. Due to its ever ...growing demand, CA is collected at an uncontrolled rate from its natural habitats, and this results in destruction of its wild genotypes. Here we report the screening of 106 CA accessions collected from their natural habitats in a wide geographical area in south India for their ASI and MAD contents by HPTLC-densitometry. The edaphic-ecologic parameters of the collection locations of CA accessions were recorded and correlated with their saponin (ASI, MAD) contents. Multilocation trials of CA elite lines at four different agro-climatic locations in Kerala were conducted, and their saponin-biomass yields were determined. Crucially, of these 106 CA accessions, only 6 showed saponin contents above the elite benchmark of industries (ASI+MAD ≥ 4.0%), viz., 45/Ca-55 (6.18 ± 0.26%), 46/Ca-56 (5.88 ± 0.11%), 48/Ca-58 (4.64 ± 0.15%), 49/Ca-59 (6.94 ± 0.23%), 53/Ca-63 (5.59 ± 0.20%), 55/Ca-65 (5.94 ± 0.18%). Multilocation trials of these elite lines revealed highest saponin contents in Plot 1, characterized by sandy soil (pH 6.0), organic carbon 2.71%, nitrogen 74.20 Kg/ha, phosphorous 100.70 Kg/ha and potassium 23.52 Kg/ha. GC-MS and ICP-MS analyses showed absence of pesticides in CA elite lines and heavy metal contents were within the permissible levels. Highest (ASI+MAD) content (7.55%, dry wt.) and biomass yield (7534.73 Kg/ha) at Plot 1 were shown by the elite line, 49/Ca-59. Average (ASI+MAD) content and biomass yield at Plot 1 were 5.38 ± 1.82% (dry wt.) and 3462.39 ± 2032.54 Kg/ha (n = 6). Noticeably, all six CA elite lines with high ASI, MAD and (ASI+MAD) contents were originally collected from high altitude (700–1700 m) locations. This ASI, MAD screening of CA accessions over a wide geographical area and multilocation trials of elite lines reveal its edaphic and ecological preferences. Our study discovered a hotspot of CA elite clones in south India. This and our previous two reports on a total of 216 accessions provide the range of ASI, MAD and (ASI+MAD) in CA accessions in south India. Further, these studies urge the restriction of random (uncontrolled) collections of CA from its natural habitats, and for the development of cultivation practices of the elite lines for commercial purposes. Overall, this study provides collection, cultivation and conservation strategies towards sustainable management of the resources of this high value medicinal herb.
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•Centella asiatica accessions (106) from south India were screened for ASI, MAD.•Of 106 CA accessions, only 6 satisfied the elite benchmark of ASI+MAD ≥ 4.0%.•In multilocation trials, elite line showed ASI+MAD 7.55%, biomass 7534.73 Kg/ha.•Altitudes of CA collection locations were correlated to ASI, MAD, ASI+MAD contents.•Discovered a hotspot of CA elite clones in a vast geographical area in south India.
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•Sixty Bacopa monnieri accessions were collected from wild habitats in South India.•They were grown in Field Gene Bank/Experimental Plot for four generations.•Bacoside A, Bacopaside I ...in these accessions were quantified by HPTLC-densitometry.•Elite contents of Bacoside A+Bacopaside I in three accessions: 5.56, 6.55, 6.58%.•Elite genotypes of B. monnieri could be multiplied for commercial purposes.
Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi) is a high value herbaceous medicinal species used for improving intellect and memory. In India, high demand of B. monnieri for the manufacture of herbal extracts and medicines prompts its collection in huge quantities from wild habitats, leading to the extinction of its genotypes. Wild accessions of B. monnieri show high variability in the levels of bioactive principles, and only few of them yield ‘elite’ contents. The objective of the present study is search for elite genotypes of B. monnieri in its wild germplasm across the south Indian State of Kerala. A precise HPTLC-densitometric method was adopted for simultaneous quantification of the bioactive saponins, Bacoside A and Bacopaside I, in sixty accessions of B. monnieri originally collected from various locations in Kerala and grown under identical ecological conditions in a Field Gene Bank/Experimental Plot for four generations. These sixty B. monnieri accessions showed high variability in the contents of bioactive compounds, and three of them showed elite contents (>5.5%) of (Bacoside A+Bacopaside I), viz., 6.58, 6.55 and 5.56%. Total content of both bioactive constituents (Bacoside A+Bacopaside I) ranged from 2.06 to 6.58%. Bacoside A and Bacopaside I contents in these sixty accessions varied from 1.44 to 5.40% and 0.29 to 1.36%, respectively. The average content of (Bacoside A+Bacopaside I) in these sixty accessions of B. monnieri is 3.70±0.72%. Elite genotypes of B. monnieri discovered in this study are potential entities for cultivation and genetic improvement, which could ultimately meet its commercial requirements.
In this study, the chemical profile of the leaf essential oil of hitherto uninvestigated shrub Clausena austroindica B.C.Stone & K.K.N.Nair and its insecticidal potential against two stored product ...pests, Sitophilus oryzae (L.) and Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) are being investigated. Essential oils from the leaves of C. austroindica collected from two locations in south India were isolated by hydrodistillation and analyzed by gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Six to eight compounds comprising 99.41–99.44% were characterized with trans-anethole (phenyl propanoid) as the major component (95.12–97.44%) in leaf essential oils. Trans-anethole was isolated from the leaf oil by column chromatography, characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR), ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis), 1H-, 13C- and distortionless enhancement by polarization transfer (DEPT 135) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and quantified by external standardization. Insecticidal activity of C. austroindica leaf oil and trans-anethole were assessed against the rice weevil (S. oryzae) and red flour beetle (T. castaneum) by contact and fumigant toxicity assays. Mammalian cell toxicity of C. austroindica leaf oil and trans-anethole was also tested against L929 cell lines using (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)−2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) MTT assay and quantification of reactive oxygen species (ROS). C. austroindica leaf oil and trans-anethole demonstrated superior contact and fumigant toxicities against adult beetles of S. oryzae and T. castaneum. C. austroindica leaf oil and trans-anethole showed potential fumigant toxicity against S. oryzae (lethal concentration 50 (LC50) 38.80 & 76.98 µL/L) and T. castaneum (LC50 35.65 & 29.10 µL/L). Relatively less prominent viz., S. oryzae: LC50 leaf oil 469.70 µL/L, trans-anethole 2543.20 µL/L; T. castaneum: LC50 leaf oil, 1090.70 µL/L, trans-anethole 2050.84 µL/L, but significant contact toxicities were displayed by the leaf oil and trans-anethole against the two stored product pests. Both C. austroindica leaf oil and trans-anethole (< 2.0 µg/mL) have not demonstrated any mammalian cell (L929 cell line) toxicity. Our study demonstrates the potential of C. austroindica leaf essential oil as a new botanical insecticide for controlling stored product pests. Its major component, trans-anethole, also showed prominent insecticidal activity.
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•First report of the chemical profile of leaf essential oil of Clausena austroindica.•Trans-anethole is the major component (95.12–97.44%) in leaf essential oil.•Fumigant toxicity of leaf oil and trans-anethole against stored product pests.•Contact toxicity of leaf oil and trans-anethole against stored product pests.•C. austroindica leaf oil is a botanical insecticide against stored product pests.
Phytochemistry of fruits and leaves of the unique bamboo Melocanna baccifera resulted in the isolation of 27 secondary metabolites, including 4-Oxabicyclo3.2.2nona-1(7),5,8-triene and Verbacine. ...Biological activity studies of Verbacine revealed it as an inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase and as cytotoxic against C6 cancer cells.
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