The use of communication strategies (CSs) in oral and written second language (L2) production has been widely investigated (e.g. Muñoz, 2007). As for content and language integrated learning (CLIL) ...settings, learners seem to resort to the first language (L1) less often than in traditional foreign language instruction (e.g. Celaya & Ruiz de Zarobe, 2010). However, few studies have examined what L2 learners say about their use of CSs by means of questionnaires – e.g. Ehrman & Oxford (1990), with adult English as a foreign language (EFL) learners – and little is known about the reported use of CSs by young learners (Purdie & Oliver, 1999), and much less by young CLIL learners. This study examines learners’ self-reported opinions about the use of CSs (guessing, miming, morphological creativity, dictionary, predicting, paraphrasing, borrowing, calque, foreignizing, avoidance and appeal for assistance). An adapted survey (Kellerman, Bongaerts, & Poulisse, 1987; Oxford, 1989; O’Malley & Chamot, 1990; Yule & Tarone, 1990) was administered to CLIL learners of English in grades 5 and 6 of primary education. Quantitative differences in terms of the type of strategies used were explored. Analyses showed striking similarities between grades 5 and 6 as well as significant differences in the use of the different CSs, paraphrasing and appeal for assistance being the most frequent strategies, whereas morphological creativity and miming obtained the lowest frequency. Findings are discussed in the light of learners’ age and the nature of CLIL instruction.
Studies investigating compensatory strategies (CSs) by means of questionnaires in English‐as‐a‐Foreign‐Language (EFL) contexts with young learners are lacking, particularly in ...Content‐and‐Language‐Integrated‐Learning (CLIL) environments. Three different proficiency groups of young English learners in a CLIL programme were administered a survey to explore the existence of intergroup differences regarding the amount and types of CSs used. Learners exhibited a moderately high use of CSs overall, and no differences emerged regarding the total number of CSs as a function of target language (TL) proficiency. In terms of types of CSs used, they reported using some CSs (paraphrasing) which are typical of more advanced learners. However, more proficient learners were found to draw on some non L2‐based strategies (avoidance, foreignising, miming) to a lesser extent than less proficient learners.
Los estudios que han investigado las estrategias compensatorias (ECs) en aprendices jóvenes de Inglés como Lengua Extranjera (ILE) por medio de cuestionarios son escasos, especialmente en contextos de Aprendizaje Integrado de Contenido y Lengua Extranjera (AICLE). Tres grupos de aprendices jóvenes que diferían en el nivel de competencia en inglés y que participaban en un programa AICLE completaron un cuestionario destinado a explorar la existencia de diferencias intergrupales en relación a la cantidad y los tipos de ECs utilizadas. Los aprendices señalaron un uso moderadamente alto de ECs en general y no se encontraron diferencias en cuanto al número de total de ECs en función de la competencia en la lengua meta (LM). Por lo que respecta a los tipos de ECs utilizados, los participantes indicaron que usaban algunas ECs (parafraseo) que son típicas de aprendices más avanzados. Sin embrago, se descubrió que los aprendices de mayor competencia hacían un menor uso de algunas estrategias no basadas en la L2 (evitación, extranjerización, mímica) que los aprendices de menor competencia.
(Pseudo)longitudinal studies of the use of previously known languages (PKL) and the target language (TL) during interaction are still scarce in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) ...contexts, particularly those with young learners. This paper examines the use of PKLs (Basque-Spanish) and the TL English in various categories (appeals for assistance- clarification requests-metacomments-discourse markers-private speech) in two groups of CLIL learners (grade 5 and 6) during dyadic interaction. A greater use of PKLs in older learners was found, especially in less cooperative and more external to the task strategies. As regards TL use, both groups performed similarly, except for metacomments, where younger learners made a slightly higher use. When comparing PKLs to TL use, both grade learners resorted to Basque-Spanish more frequently than to English, except for metacomments. Learners seem to use their language repertoire for task-management purposes. Nonetheless, they still resort to PKLs to keep the flow of speech.
Recent studies have concluded that type of language teaching programs such as Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) may have an effect on the use of previously known languages. Most of the ...studies that have tackled the use of previously known languages in the CLIL literature have compared CLIL to non-CLIL learners. However, few (pseudo)longitudinal studies have been conducted in this respect. This paper will try to fill this gap by examining the use of previously known languages (L1 Spanish/L2 Basque) in an oral narration task in two different age/proficiency CLIL groups. Participants are Basque/Spanish bilinguals learning English as a third language (L3) in a CLIL setting. Both groups started learning English at the age of 3 but differ in length and amount of exposure. Results show that both groups behave in the same way in terms of the use of previously known languages except for the production of foreignizings, which were more frequent in the younger group. The examination of the results also revealed that discourse markers was the most common manifestation of use of previous linguistic experience when compared to the rest of the categories.
Empirical studies have shown that Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) seems to be beneficial to receptive vocabulary, which in turn correlates with a higher level of general competence. ...However, these studies have mainly compared CLIL and Non-CLIL groups matching in age at testing and without a control of other variables such as amount of exposure. The present study, even though exploratory in nature, sets out to fill this gap by comparing groups with the same onset age as well as controlling for other variables. To test general proficiency, the Quick Placement Test (QPT) was used, and the 1,000 and 2,000 frequency bands of the Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) were delivered to measure functional vocabulary size. CLIL students were found to outstrip their respective Non-CLIL counterparts at the same educational level and to perform as well as an older Non-CLIL sample. Taking together the level of English language lessons and differences in cognitive maturity and amounts of exposure, it is argued that CLIL instruction has intrinsic benefits for receptive vocabulary.
Empirical studies have shown that explicit instruction leads to the improvement of perception (e.g. Strange and Dittman 1984; Jamieson and Morosan 1986; Cenoz and García Lecumberri 1999) and oral ...production (e.g. Couper 2003; Derwing and Munro 2005; Smith and Beckman 2005). Nonetheless, it is necessary to test different types of activities intended for the explicit teaching of pronunciation. This action-research study aims to test the efficacy of a reading aloud task with a noticing and an awareness component in the teaching of pronunciation, and to gauge learners’ beliefs regarding the use of this learning tool. Twenty first-year students of the BA in English Studies at the University of the Basque Country participated in the investigation. Ten written texts were selected by the instructors in order to practice reading aloud for ten weeks. Students went through two phases when doing this task in class: noticing and awareness. They were tested on articulation of sounds, stress placement and intonation through two different texts at two different times. Students were also administered a questionnaire to analyze their opinions regarding the usefulness of this learning task. The assessment of the recordings revealed that learners obtained better means in the case of the second text analyzed. Similarly, the analysis of the responses given to the questionnaire indicated that students considered the reading aloud task a good instrument to improve their pronunciation in English.
Few studies have gauged the effects of Computer Assisted Language Learning –CALL– on the verbal accuracy of students. The current study explores the use of Hot Potatoes JCloze-type exercises as ...supplementary classroom work to enhance the English tense accuracy of university students enrolled in three EFL proficiency level courses -high-intermediate (B2) and advanced (C1 and C2). Tense marking was measured before and after a period of autonomous, self-paced CALL work in which students could access theoretical information and practiced with Hot Potatoes exercises. The comparisons revealed that the experience was mainly beneficial for the C1 level course group, the other two experimenting non-significant gains. Results only partially support a boosting effect of CALL additional practice. They also suggest that proficiency should be taken into consideration as it can affect the effect of treatment as not all the proficiency level courses experienced advantages. Alternatives to improve effectiveness are then suggested.
Martínez-Adrián delves into the complexities of the use of previously known languages by second language learners as regards its conceptualization, issues related to the methodology employed for its ...investigation and the analysis of the variables that determine its use. He outlines the main theoretical approaches to the study of this phenomenon, highlights the main uses of previously known languages considered within them, the factors examined and the type of designs followed. He also presents several methodological issues which might explain the existence of mixed results in the literature.
Research on the use of the first language (L1) in interactional strategies by young Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is still in its infancy. Here we compare CLIL and NON-CLIL primary ...school children in terms of L1 use in interactional strategies. The oral production of 44 age- and proficiency-matched dyads (21 CLIL, 22 NON-CLIL) is analyzed in terms of use of the L1 in appeals, clarification requests and metacomments. The results indicate that NON-CLIL learners produce more instances of L1 use in interactional strategies and that greater differences emerge as grade increases. This is consistent with previous research in CLIL contexts as well as investigations that have compared CLIL and NON-CLIL contexts. A qualitative inspection of the results has also revealed that there are differences between groups in their preference for either the L1 or the target language (TL) in the case of appeals and clarification requests. However, metacomments are always produced in the L1 in both groups, which appears to support previous classroom observation data.
The present study examines transfer errors at the levels of phonetics and syntax in the interlanguage of 10 fourteen-year-old Basque/Spanish bilinguals who have been learning English for 7 years in a ...formal school context in the Basque Country. Analyses showed that learners display L1 effects in the acquisition of both English phonetics and syntax, even though phonetic transfer errors (replacement of novel phonemes by L1 sounds, spirantisation and lack of aspiration in stop sounds, closure of fricative sounds) were far more frequent than syntactic ones (use of null subjects, null objects and null determiners). It is suggested that negative transfer would be minimised if certain educational measures were adopted, such as the enhancement of teachers'/learners' linguistic awareness towards interlanguage processes, the inclusion of contrastive linguistics and language acquisition topics in teacher training programmes, and learners' participation in courses where the target language is used in a more natural, communicative way. Adapted from the source document
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