This review article aims to provide an in-depth analysis of the literature along with comprehensive bibliography on automatic generation control (AGC)/load frequency control investigations. Different ...control perspectives concerning frequency and power control have been featured. Diverse linear, non-linear power system models are discussed under conventional and deregulated environments considering various power generation sources, including conventional, renewable energy sources (RES), and realistic RES. Moreover, AGC literature briefly explains various secondary controllers like integer order, fractional order, intelligent, cascade, and some recently used controllers. To obtain the optimum values of secondary controllers, various optimization strategies such as numerical approach, heuristic, and meta-heuristic techniques for AGC issues are mentioned. Also, AGC studies concerning power transmission, considering inertia and phase-locked loops in high voltage direct current (HVDC) and accurate HVDC models are discussed. Further, AGC literature integrated with flexible alternating current transmission system devices in loaded transmission lines and energy storage devices due to intermittent power generation in RES is deliberated. Furthermore, various performance index criteria (PIC) such as standard PIC and hybrid peak area (HPA)–PIC for controller optimization with algorithms are also conferred.
This article highlights the dynamic model of an accurate high‐voltage direct current (AHVDC) using inertia emulation control strategy of a transmission line in automatic generation control (AGC) of a ...multiarea different source system. The three‐area system composes of thermal and precise wind turbine system using fixed and random wind velocities in areas 1 and 2. Area 3 composes of thermal and solar thermal power plants. Governor dead band and appropriate generation rate constraints are considered for thermal systems. A new fractional‐order cascaded controller named as fractional‐order proportional‐integral cascaded with fractional‐order integral derivative with filter (FOPI‐FOIDN) is used as a secondary controller. The controller gains and other parameters are optimized by using crow search algorithm in AGC studies for the first time. Comparison of system dynamics with various fractional‐order controllers and proposed FOPI‐FOIDN controller while considering one at a time reveals better dynamic performance of the latter. Comparison of dynamic response of the system with AC tie‐line, AHVDC tie‐line, and parallel combination of AC‐AHVDC tie‐lines while considering one at a time reveals better performance of the latter. The optimum location of AHVDC tie‐line in parallel AC tie‐line is found in the area where the system is disturbed.
This article demonstrates the automatic generation control of a multi-area system incorporating various sources. Area-1 and area-2 consist of thermal and parabolic trough solar thermal plant (PTSTP) ...of fixed and random solar insolation, respectively, and area-3 comprises of thermal and realistic dish-stirling solar thermal system units. A maiden effort has been made to use a fractional order (FO) proportional-integral minus FO derivative with filter coefficient (FOPI-FODF) controller as a secondary controller. The controller gains are optimised using a novel algorithm called crow search algorithm. Comparisons of system dynamic response with and without renewable energy sources for FOPI-FODF, and for some commonly used integer order and FO controller's reveals the better performance of FOPI-FODF controller. A study comparing both fixed and random solar insolation in PTSTP of different areas have been tested. An accurate high-voltage direct current (AHVDC) line model is designed using inertia emulation strategy and is placed instead of AC tie line, and with parallel AC tie lines resulting in better system dynamic performances than AC tie line alone. The selection of the optimum location of AHVDC line in parallel AC tie line exposes the AHVDC line connected with the area where the system is disturbed.
A maiden attempt was made to demonstrate the impact of realistic high‐voltage direct current (RHVDC) tie‐line along with realistic dish‐Stirling solar thermal system (RDSTS) models in multi‐area load ...frequency control studies under a deregulated scenario. Area‐1, area‐2 and area‐3 comprise thermal‐RDSTS systems with relevant generation rate constraints. Each area includes two generation and two distribution companies. A new secondary controller with a cascaded combination of fractional order (FO) proportional derivative with filter coefficient (N) and FO‐proportional‐integral‐derivative with filter coefficient (N) (FOPDN‐FOPIDN) is proposed for the first time. The performance indices (peak magnitude, settling time and oscillations magnitude) of the proposed controller shows the dominance in comparison with the existing FOPI, PIDN and FOPIDN controllers in the policy schemes like poolco, bilateral and contract violation. A recent metaheuristic algorithm named the crow‐search algorithm is successfully applied for simultaneous optimisation of the proposed FOPDN‐FOPIDN controller gains and RDSTS parameters under the deregulated environment for the first time. Under the above policy schemes, the effect of RDSTS and RHVDC tie‐line using FOPDN‐FOPIDN controller is investigated, and the use of RHVDC tie‐line with AC tie‐line is explored. System dynamic response comparison with parallel AC‐RHVDC tie‐lines reveals better performance over AC tie‐line and RHVDC tie‐line when used alone.
This work addresses the automatic-generation-control of multiple-area and sources under a restructured-situation. Sources within area-1 represent geothermal power plant, thermal, and gas, and area-2 ...sources represent thermal, hydro, and wind. An original endeavour is brought about to execute a controller with an admixture of proportional-derivative with filter (PDN) (integer-order) besides fractional-order proportional–integral (FOPI). Examination manifests excellence of PDN(FOPI) over integer order controllers likely integral, proportional–integral, proportional–integral–derivative-filter from perspective concerning depleted status of peak aberrations, extent-of-oscillations, and duration of settlement. To attain the controller’s attributes bioinspired meta-heuristic tunicate swarm algorithm is exercised. The occurrence of renewable sources makes arrangements meaningfully improved related to base thermal-gas-hydro arrangement. The action of hydrogen aqua electrolyzer-fuel cell and redox flow battery is examined using a PDN(FOPI) controller, providing noteworthy outcome in dynamic performance. The analysis is conducted under all the schemes of restructured situations.
This article aims to provide an in-depth analysis of the recent development of various control strategies and their implementation concerning frequency and power control in automatic generation ...control (AGC) systems. The design of a secondary controller is an important aspect of AGC for effective automatic generation control system operation. Various secondary controllers like integer order, cascade, fractional order, degree of freedom, modern/intelligence controller, and some recently developed controllers used in AGC are explained briefly with their control structure. Various optimal control theories, such as conventional optimization techniques, heuristic/metaheuristic optimization techniques, and their utilization in AGC to get the optimal performance of secondary controllers, are described in detail. Moreover, various performance index criteria(PICs), such as conventional and modified PICs, are also briefly explained. Finally, this paper concludes with an emphasis on the controller design, application of various optimal control theories, and various PICs used in the field of AGC. This article helps the researcher to bridge the gap between current developments, implementation, technical challenges, and anticipated trends in AGC studies.
This article presents a new meta-heuristic algorithm optimized secondary controller called Integral minus Tilt-Derivative (I-TD) for automatic generation control of three area multi-source system. ...Area-1 comprises of thermal and solar thermal units, area-2 comprises of two thermal units and area-3 comprises of thermal and wind systems. Comparison of system responses using proposed I-TD controller and some other commonly used controller revels better dynamics characteristics of the proposed one. Dynamic responses of the system corresponding to various meta heuristic optimization technique like firefly algorithm (FA), grey-wolf optimization (GWO), grass-hopper algorithm (GHA) explore that GHA provides slightly better dynamics than the other and also converges faster. Further, sensitivity analysis suggests that system dynamics with GHA optimized I-TD controller at various loading conditions are robust and are not reset again.
Summary
This article presents the studies of automatic generation control (AGC) on a three‐area hydro‐thermal system under various loading conditions. The study at various loading conditions is ...investigated because the model parameter of steam and hydro depend on their generation schedule. A maiden attempt has been made to design a three degree of freedom tilt integral derivative (3DOF‐TID) controller as a secondary controller. Its gains are optimized using a novel bird swarm algorithm (BSA). Comparison of dynamic responses in a hydro‐thermal system with the proposed 3DOF‐TID reveals better performance over 2DOF‐TID, 2DOF‐PID controllers. It is also explored that the dynamic system responses are improved in thermal power plants and deteriorate in the hydropower plants when loading increases from its nominal values. Moreover, the dynamic system responses are analysed with the realistic dish‐Stirling solar thermal system (RDSTS) considering fixed and random solar insolations. The comparative analysis suggests that RDSTS with fixed insolation enhances system dynamics by 5.72% over random insolation. Further, the comparison of dynamic responses of the system with AC tie‐line and parallel AC/accurate high‐voltage direct (AHVDC) tie‐lines reveals that the system dynamics are improved with the parallel AC/AHVDC tie‐lines. Furthermore, the inertia is emulated in the parallel AC/AHVDC tie‐line using capacitive energy storage (CES), super magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems, and redox flow battery (RFB). Simulations show that the inertia emulated hydro‐thermal‐RDSTS system with RFB provides better dynamics. Sensitivity analysis suggests that 3DOF‐TID parameters values at nominal condition are appropriate for higher value of disturbance without need for optimization.
Effect of partial loading on a three‐area hydro‐thermal system integrated with realistic dish‐Stirling solar thermal system (RDSTS), accurate high‐voltage direct (AHVDC), virtual inertia, and energy storage system (ESS) considering bird swarm algorithm (BSA) optimized three degree of freedom tilt integral derivative (3DOF‐TID) controller.
The concept of automatic generation control has an immense role in providing quality power in an interconnected system. To obtain quality power by controlling the oscillations of frequency and ...tie-line power, a proper controller design is necessary. So, an innovative endeavor has been undertaken to enforce a two-stage controller with the amalgamation of a proportional-derivative with filter (PDN) (integer-order) and a fractional order integral-derivative (FOID), i.e., PDN(FOID). In an effort to acquire the controller’s gains and parameters, a bio-inspired meta-heuristic spotted hyena optimizer is applied. Various examinations manifest the excellence of PDN(FOID) over other controllers such as integral, proportional–integral, proportional–integral-derivative filter, and fractional order PID from perspectives concerning the diminished amount of peak anomaly oscillations, and the instant of settling for a three-area system. The system includes thermal–bio-diesel in area-1; a thermal–geothermal power plant in area-2; and a thermal–split-shaft gas turbine in area-3. It is also observed that the presence of renewable sources such as wave power plants and photovoltaics makes the system significantly better compared to the base system, when assessed individually or both together. Action in a combination of capacitive energy storage with duple compensation is also examined using the PDN(FOID) controller, which provides a noteworthy outcome in dynamic performance. Moreover, PDN(FOID) parameter values at a nominal condition are appropriate for the random patterns of disturbance needed for optimization.
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