Some links between transport and health are widely known, such as active travel, physical (in)activity, air pollution and injuries. Others are not as apparent and are much less studied, for example ...social interactions. This article reviews the evidence that transport impacts on social interactions, and that social interactions impact on health. It is an updated version of part of chapter 5 from Health on the Move 2.
There is growing evidence that aspects of transport influence social exclusion, social capital, social cohesion and social networks. Numerous studies have identified associations between these aspects of social interaction and morbidity and mortality. Community severance – where transport infrastructure or the speed or volume of traffic act as a physical or psychological barrier – impacts on individuals׳ travel, social networks, and the accessibility of goods, services and facilities, and has scope to influence health through a number of routes. With the development of more comprehensive measures, such as of community severance, it is likely that there will be stronger evidence that transport influences health through these pathways.
•Lack of access to transport can lead to social exclusion and poor social capital, which impact on health.•Walkable built environments promote social capital and social cohesion, both of which benefit health.•Public and green spaces benefit health through promoting social interactions and physical activity.•Traffic can lead to smaller social networks, which impacts on physical and mental health.•Improved measurement of community severance will enable the effects on health to be determined
BackgroundThe World Health Organisation recommends a daily intake of ≥400 g of fruit and vegetables (F&V) to reduce disease risk, publicised in the UK as the ‘5 A Day’ campaign since 2003. Low F&V ...intake in England is associated with deprivation and lower incomes. In November 2006, Healthy Start (HS) was introduced to provide vouchers to pregnant women and families with children under 4 y in receipt of qualifying benefits. Vouchers can be spent on milk (including infant formula) and plain fresh or frozen F&V. We sought to quantify the impact of the Healthy Start scheme on F&V intake.MethodsWe used repeated cross-sectional data from the Health Survey for England, 2001–2014. Participants were classified into four groups: 1: HS eligible families, 2: households with qualifying children or pregnant women but without qualifying benefits, 3: households receiving qualifying benefits but without qualifying children or pregnant women, and 4: all others. Analysis was run separately for 38,058 children (5–15 y) and 62,874 adults (16–49 y). Outcome measures were daily mean portions F&V consumed, and proportions consuming 3+ portions per day. We compared the four groups in four time periods: 2001–2003 (pre 5 a day), 2004–2006 (pre HS), 2007–2009 (post HS) and 2010–2014; adjusting for potential confounders (age-group, sex, area deprivation, ethnicity, income and education) using multivariable regression. Interaction terms between time-periods and eligibility group were used to examine whether changes in group 1 outcomes were at a significantly different trajectory from those in the control groups.ResultsAdults in group 2 had the highest mean F&V consumption, and group 3 the lowest. Children’s mean F&V consumption was similar in all 4 groups. Changes in mean F&V consumption did not vary with time-period in a significantly different way among group 1 participants compared to control groups for adults or children. Children’s mean daily F&V intake increased significantly between 2001–3 and 2004–6 (by 0.5 portions); followed by increases of 0.1 portions from 2004–6 to 2007–9, and 2007–09 to 2010–14. Adults’ mean daily F&V intake increased significantly between 2001–3 and 2004–6 (by 0.2 portions), but decreased by 0.2 portions by 2010–14.ConclusionThe change in F&V intake over time was not significantly different in HS eligible families compared to other groups. This may be explained by use of vouchers on other eligible products, low uptake, or other reasons. Further research is required to understand this. Increased F&V consumption from 2001–03 to 2004–06 may relate to the national 5 A Day campaign.
This paper, together with its companions(1)(2) describes the experimental data communication network being implemented at the National Physical Laboratory. The purpose of the work is two-fold.
...Firstly, it will act as a model of the 'local area' network assumed, but never analysed in detail, in the NPL proposal for a possible National Data Communication System(3)(4)(5).
Secondly, it will provide data communications between a wide variety of devices. These range from computers to teletypes and are spread over the 78 acres of the Laboratory site.
Two of 3 subjects reported dreams occurring during normal sleep, and one also reported hypnotically induced dreams. Among the conclusions reached are the following: "(1) Dreams have an inhibitory ...influence on the stomach movements during hunger. (2) The exact point at which the dreaming occurs is difficult to ascertain. However, it appears evident . . . that dreams occur only in the period of active hunger contractions." (3) Hypnotically induced dreams with food as an integral part of the dreams inhibit contractions. "(4) The point at which the dream occurs in the hunger period determines whether the contractions will return and a normal ending result or the period cease abruptly and pass into quiescence . . . . (5) The mechanism of the inhibition is a matter of conjecture."
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CEKLJ, FFLJ, NUK, ODKLJ, PEFLJ
A simple procedure for achieving reliable full-duplex transmission over half-duplex links is proposed. The scheme is compared with another of the same type, which has recently been described in the ...literature. Finally, some comments are made on another group of related transmission procedures which have been shown to be unreliable under some circumstances.
The statistical theory of branching or cascade processes leads to simple methods for evaluating statistical parameters of polymerization systems. As a good first approximation, these methods are here ...extended to cover equilibrium f-functional polycondensation systems which depart from randomness, not only by a (first-shell) substitution effect, but also through intramolecular (cyclization) reactions which compete with intermolecular (crosslinking) reactions. The results are tested against the inorganic equilibrium polymer system POCl$_3$/P$_2$O$_5$ for which excellent data were made available by Van Wazer and his co-workers. The three-parameter theory agrees within experimental error with their n.m.r. measurements of the concentrations of the four types of P atoms (bearing zero, one, two or three Cl atoms) in six equilibrium mixtures. The concentration of pyrophosphoryl dichloride calculated for one mixture agrees almost exactly with two concordant experimental methods; but too much confirmatory value must not be placed on this particular result. The maximum amount of cyclization calculated (i.e. at the gel point) is 0·64 $\pm$ 0·10 ring per molecule present. This is in good agreement with forecasts made by adapting the classical random-flight model, and using known bond lengths and angles. Contrary to previous estimates, arrived at by neglecting cylization, of a substantial non-linear substitution effect in POCl$_3$/P$_2$O$_5$, a barely significant (linear) effect, in the opposite direction, is here deduced. The theory is based on the process of imagining all rings split open and classifying the resulting functionalities as a special type ('ring-closing' functionalities) on the resultant tree-molecules. A zero approximation would consist in distributing these special functionalities at random on tree-molecules which obey the usual distributions calculable in absence of cyclization; but this has little value in practice. The next (first) approximation is amply sufficient: it rests on the recognition that the chance of a given functionality being ring-closing is almost exactly proportional to the number of crosslinks borne by the repeat unit to which it belongs. The theory, which should apply even in presence of fair degrees of fused-ring formation, reduces for difunctional systems exactly to a generalization of the Jacobson-Stockmayer treatment. The theory is also asymptotically correct for systems of any functionality as the degree of cyclization goes to zero. It is well adapted for calculating statistical averages, but not the equilibrium concentrations of individual species, except probably the simplest ones, such as pyrophosphoryl dichloride mentioned above.
Those computer applications which involve rapid response to events at distant points create special problems in digital communication. Such applications are increasing in number, and could increase ...more rapidly if better solutions existed to the communication problems.
The present-day methods for communication of data in rapid-response systems employ 'private wires' for the transmission paths or, where the available data rate and reliability is sufficient, employ voice channels from the switched telephone network. Given these rather arbitrary transmission facilities the user adds the terminal equipment necessary to make a communication system and sometimes integrates a number of paths into a private network.
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