Most eukaryotes develop close interactions with microorganisms that are essential for their performance and survival. Thus, eukaryotes and prokaryotes in nature can be considered as meta-organisms or ...holobionts. Consequently, microorganisms that colonize different plant compartments contain the plant's second genome. In this respect, many studies in the last decades have shown that plant-microbe interactions are not only crucial for better understanding plant growth and health, but also for sustainable crop production in a changing world. This mini-review acting as editorial presents retrospectives and future perspectives for plant microbiome studies as well as information gaps in this emerging research field. In addition, the contribution of this research topic to the solution of various issues is discussed.
Large amounts of manure have been applied to arable soils as fertilizer worldwide. Manure is often contaminated with veterinary antibiotics which enter the soil together with antibiotic resistant ...bacteria. However, little information is available regarding the main responders of bacterial communities in soil affected by repeated inputs of antibiotics via manure. In this study, a microcosm experiment was performed with two concentrations of the antibiotic sulfadiazine (SDZ) which were applied together with manure at three different time points over a period of 133 days. Samples were taken 3 and 60 days after each manure application. The effects of SDZ on soil bacterial communities were explored by barcoded pyrosequencing of 16S rRNA gene fragments amplified from total community DNA. Samples with high concentration of SDZ were analyzed on day 193 only. Repeated inputs of SDZ, especially at a high concentration, caused pronounced changes in bacterial community compositions. By comparison with the initial soil, we could observe an increase of the disturbance and a decrease of the stability of soil bacterial communities as a result of SDZ manure application compared to the manure treatment without SDZ. The number of taxa significantly affected by the presence of SDZ increased with the times of manure application and was highest during the treatment with high SDZ-concentration. Numerous taxa, known to harbor also human pathogens, such as Devosia, Shinella, Stenotrophomonas, Clostridium, Peptostreptococcus, Leifsonia, Gemmatimonas, were enriched in the soil when SDZ was present while the abundance of bacteria which typically contribute to high soil quality belonging to the genera Pseudomonas and Lysobacter, Hydrogenophaga, and Adhaeribacter decreased in response to the repeated application of manure and SDZ.
The field of microbiome research has evolved rapidly over the past few decades and has become a topic of great scientific and public interest. As a result of this rapid growth in interest covering ...different fields, we are lacking a clear commonly agreed definition of the term "microbiome." Moreover, a consensus on best practices in microbiome research is missing. Recently, a panel of international experts discussed the current gaps in the frame of the European-funded MicrobiomeSupport project. The meeting brought together about 40 leaders from diverse microbiome areas, while more than a hundred experts from all over the world took part in an online survey accompanying the workshop. This article excerpts the outcomes of the workshop and the corresponding online survey embedded in a short historical introduction and future outlook. We propose a definition of microbiome based on the compact, clear, and comprehensive description of the term provided by Whipps et al. in 1988, amended with a set of novel recommendations considering the latest technological developments and research findings. We clearly separate the terms microbiome and microbiota and provide a comprehensive discussion considering the composition of microbiota, the heterogeneity and dynamics of microbiomes in time and space, the stability and resilience of microbial networks, the definition of core microbiomes, and functionally relevant keystone species as well as co-evolutionary principles of microbe-host and inter-species interactions within the microbiome. These broad definitions together with the suggested unifying concepts will help to improve standardization of microbiome studies in the future, and could be the starting point for an integrated assessment of data resulting in a more rapid transfer of knowledge from basic science into practice. Furthermore, microbiome standards are important for solving new challenges associated with anthropogenic-driven changes in the field of planetary health, for which the understanding of microbiomes might play a key role. Video Abstract.
Since the advent of sequencing technologies, the determination of microbial diversity to predict microbial functions, which are the major determinants of soil functions, has become a major topic of ...interest, as evidenced by the 900 publications dealing with soil metagenome published up to 2017. However, the detection of a gene in soil does not mean that the relative function is expressed, and the presence of a particular taxon does not mean that the relative functions determined in pure culture also occur in the studied soil. Another critical step is to link microbial community composition or function to the product analyzed to determine flux rates. Indeed, flux rates might not only be highly dynamic, but several metabolites can depend on different reactions, which makes the link to one process of interest difficult or even impossible. This review also discusses biases caused by sampling, storage of samples, DNA extraction and purification, sequencing (amplicon- vs. metagenome sequencing), and bioinformatic data analysis. Insights and the limits of predicting microbial interactions by network inference methods are critically discussed, and finally, future directions for a better understanding of soil functions by using measurements of microbial diversity are presented.
Genes of archaea encoding homologues of ammonia monooxygenases have been found on a widespread basis and in large amounts in almost all terrestrial and marine environments, indicating that ammonia ...oxidizing archaea (AOA) might play a major role in nitrification on Earth. However, only one pure isolate of this group from a marine environment has so far been obtained, demonstrating archaeal ammonia oxidation coupled with autotrophic growth similar to the bacterial counterparts. Here we describe the cultivation and isolation of an AOA from soil. It grows on ammonia or urea as an energy source and is capable of using higher ammonia concentrations than the marine isolate, Nitrosopumilus maritimus. Surprisingly, although it is able to grow chemolithoautotrophically, considerable growth rates of this strain are obtained only upon addition of low amounts of pyruvate or when grown in coculture with bacteria. Our findings expand the recognized metabolic spectrum of AOA and help explain controversial results obtained in the past on the activity and carbon assimilation of these globally distributed organisms.
It has long been recognized that plant species and soil microorganisms are tightly linked, but understanding how different species vary in their effects on soil is currently limited. In this study, ...we identified those plant characteristics (identity, specific functional traits, or resource acquisition strategy) that were the best predictors of nitrification and denitrification processes. Ten plant populations representing eight species collected from three European grassland sites were chosen for their contrasting plant trait values and resource acquisition strategies. For each individual plant, leaf and root traits and the associated potential microbial activities (i.e., potential denitrification rate DEA, maximal nitrification rate NEA, and NH
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affinity of the microbial community NHS
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) were measured at two fertilization levels under controlled growth conditions. Plant traits were powerful predictors of plant-microbe interactions, but relevant plant traits differed in relation to the microbial function studied. Whereas denitrification was linked to the relative growth rate of plants, nitrification was strongly correlated to root trait characteristics (specific root length, root nitrogen concentration, and plant affinity for NH
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) linked to plant N cycling. The leaf economics spectrum (LES) that commonly serves as an indicator of resource acquisition strategies was not correlated to microbial activity. These results suggest that the LES alone is not a good predictor of microbial activity, whereas root traits appeared critical in understanding plant-microbe interactions.
The relative importance of size and composition of microbial communities in ecosystem functioning is poorly understood. Here, we investigated how community composition and size of selected functional ...guilds in the nitrogen cycle correlated with agroecosystem functioning, which was defined as microbial process rates, total crop yield and nitrogen content in the crop. Soil was sampled from a 50-year fertilizer trial and the treatments comprised unfertilized bare fallow, unfertilized with crop, and plots with crop fertilized with calcium nitrate, ammonium sulfate, solid cattle manure or sewage sludge. The size of the functional guilds and the total bacterial community were greatly affected by the fertilization regimes, especially by the sewage sludge and ammonium sulfate treatments. The community size results were combined with previously published data on the composition of the corresponding communities, potential ammonia oxidation, denitrification, basal and substrate-induced respiration rates, in addition to crop yield for an integrated analysis. It was found that differences in size, rather than composition, correlated with differences in process rates for the denitrifier and ammonia-oxidizing archaeal and total bacterial communities, whereas neither differences in size nor composition was correlated with differences in process rates for the ammonia-oxidizing bacterial community. In contrast, the composition of nitrate-reducing, denitrifying and total bacterial communities co-varied with primary production and both were strongly linked to soil properties.
The increasing production and use of engineered silver nanoparticles (AgNP) in industry and private households are leading to increased concentrations of AgNP in the environment. An ecological risk ...assessment of AgNP is needed, but it requires understanding the long term effects of environmentally relevant concentrations of AgNP on the soil microbiome. Hence, the aim of this study was to reveal the long-term effects of AgNP on soil microorganisms. The study was conducted as a laboratory incubation experiment over a period of one year using a loamy soil and AgNP concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 1 mg AgNP/kg soil. The short term effects of AgNP were, in general, limited. However, after one year of exposure to 0.01 mg AgNP/kg, there were significant negative effects on soil microbial biomass (quantified by extractable DNA; p = 0.000) and bacterial ammonia oxidizers (quantified by amoA gene copy numbers; p = 0.009). Furthermore, the tested AgNP concentrations significantly decreased the soil microbial biomass, the leucine aminopeptidase activity (quantified by substrate turnover; p = 0.014), and the abundance of nitrogen fixing microorganisms (quantified by nifH gene copy numbers; p = 0.001). The results of the positive control with AgNO3 revealed predominantly stronger effects due to Ag+ ion release. Thus, the increasing toxicity of AgNP during the test period may reflect the long-term release of Ag+ ions. Nevertheless, even very low concentrations of AgNP caused disadvantages for the microbial soil community, especially for nitrogen cycling, and our results confirmed the risks of releasing AgNP into the environment.
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The microbial groups of nitrogen fixers, ammonia oxidizers, and denitrifiers largely drive the inorganic nitrogen cycle in temperate terrestrial ecosystems. Their spatial and temporal dynamics, ...however, vary depending on the studied scale. The present study aimed to fill a knowledge gap by providing an explicit picture of spatial and temporal dynamics of a subset of these soil microorganisms at the plot scale. We selected an unfertilized perennial grassland, where nitrogen cycling is considered to be efficient and tightly coupled to plant growth. At six times over one growing season 60 soil samples were taken from a 10 m × 10 m area and abundances of marker genes for total archaea and bacteria (16S rRNA), nitrogen fixing bacteria (nifH), ammonia oxidizing archaea (amoA AOA) and bacteria (amoA AOB), and denitrifying bacteria (nirS, nirK and nosZ) were determined by qPCR. Potential nitrification activity (PNA) and denitrifying enzyme activity (DEA) were determined. Seasonal changes in abundance patterns of marker genes were detected, and were associated with changes in substrate availability associated with plant growth stages. Potential nitrification and denitrification enzyme activities were strongly spatially structured at the studied scale, corresponding to periods of rapid plant growth, June and October, and their spatial distributions were similar, providing visual evidence of highly localized spatial and temporal conditions at this scale. Temporal variability in the N-cycling communities versus the stability of their respective potential activities provided evidence of both short-lived temporal niche partitioning and a degree of microbial functional redundancy. Our results indicate that in an unfertilized grassland, at the meter scale, abundances of microbial N-cycling organisms can exhibit transient changes, while nitrogen cycling processes remain stable.
•Abundances of nitrifying and denitrifying functional genes followed seasonal patterns.•Small changes in soil environment influenced functional gene abundances.•Potential enyzme activities were more stable than related functional gene abundances.•Potential enzyme activities were spatially structured at dates of rapid plant growth.•Functional genes and their enzyme activities showed no biogeographical relationship.
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