•PAHs are known as environmental carcinogens.•Diet plays an important role in PAHs’ exposure in humans.•Post harvest processing and cooking techniques favor PAHs’ formation in food.•Interventions may ...prevent or reduce PAHs’ formation in food.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) emerged as an important contaminant group in a gamut of processed food groups like dairy, nuts, herbs, beverages, meat products etc. Different cooking processes and processing techniques like roasting, barbecuing, grilling, smoking, heating, drying, baking, ohmic-infrared cooking etc. contribute towards its formation. The level of PAHs depends on factors like distance from heat source, fuel used, level of processing, cooking durations and methods, whereas processes like reuse, conching, concentration, crushing and storage enhance the amount of PAHs in some food items. This review paper provides insight into the impact of dietary intake of PAHs, its levels and formation mechanism in processed food items and possible interventions for prevention and reduction of the PAHs contamination. The gaps and future prospects have also been assessed.
The study aimed at the development of elephant foot yam starch (EFYS) based edible film through blending of Xanthan (XG) and agar–agar (AA). Film thickness and density increased with increase in ...concentration of hydrocolloids and the respective highest value 0.199 mm and 2.02 g/cm
3
were found for the film possessing 2% AA. The film barrier properties varied with hydrocolloids and the lowest value of water vapour transmission rate (1494.54 g/m
2
) and oxygen transmission rate (0.020 cm
3
/m
2
) was observed for the film with 1% XG and 1.5% AA, respectively. Mechanical and thermal properties also improved upon addition of hydrocolloid. Highest tensile strength (20.14 MPa) and glass transition temperature (150.6 °C) was observed for film containing 2% AA. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy demonstrated the presence of –OH, C–H, and C=O groups. The change in crystallinity was observed through peak in X-ray diffraction analysis, which increased with increase in the hydrocolloids’ concentration.
•Hydration temperature of 35 °C was found to be optimum temperature for hydration.•Model Selection for the hydration characteristics dependson the hydration temperature.•Artificial Neural Network ...predicted the hydration kinetics of green chickpea at different soaking temperature.•Both mathematical and ANN models were able to predict hydration characteristics.•Peleg and other diffusion models can be used for modeling the hydration.
The present study was aimed to model the hydration characteristics of green chickpea (GC) using mathematical modelling and examine predictive ability of artificial neural network (ANN) modelling. Hydration of GC was performed at different temperatures 25, 35, 45, 55 and 65 °C. Different mathematical models were tested for the hydration at different temperatures. In ANN modelling, the hydration time and hydration temperature were used as input variables and moisture ratio, moisture content and hydration ratio were taken as output variables. Peleg model best described the hydration behavior at 25 °C; while hydration at high-temperature was better described by Page model and Ibarz et al. model. The optimum temperature obtained for hydration was 35 °C. Effective mass diffusion coefficient (De) increased from 1.55 × 10-11-1.79 × 10-9 m2/s with the increase in the hydration temperature. The low activation energy (39.66 kJ/moL) shows the low-temperature sensitiveness of GC. Low temperature hydration (25 °C) required higher time (>200 min) to achieve the equilibrium moisture content (EMC), however high temperature hydration (35–65 °C) reduced the EMC time (150 min). ANN was used to predict the hydration behavior and K fold cross validation was performed to check the over fitting of ANN model. Results show that the LOGSIGMOID transfer function showed better performance when used at the hidden layer input node in conjunction to both PURELIN and TANSIGMOID. TANSIGMOID was found suitable for moisture ratio (MR) and hydration ratio (HR) prediction, as opposed to PURELIN for moisture content (MC) data. Satisfactory model prediction was obtained when the number of neurons in the hidden layer for MC, MR and HR was 12, 8 and 15, respectively. Mathematical and ANN modelling results are useful to improve/predict the MC, MR and HR during hydration process of GC at different temperature and other similar process.
Germinated and microwave roasted black chickpea were evaluated for physical, proximate, pasting, functional, and antioxidant properties. A significant variation was observed in quality of grain upon ...germination and roasting. The effect of germination and roasting on functional groups was analyzed using Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy. The results showed that germination improved the physical and pasting properties, whereas roasting enhanced the functional properties. The lightness of germinated grains significantly improved as compared with dark colored roasted sample. The germinated sample was found rich in protein, whereas carbohydrates and fiber content increased in roasted sample. Water and oil absorption content were reduced by 7.14% and 5.13% in germination as compared with control. However, roasting significantly improved the water absorption capacity and oil absorption capacity by 69.51% and 6.41% as compared with control.
•Ultrasound pretreated spine gourd slices dried in a convective dryer (4070 °C).•Increase in drying temperature increased total flavonoids, fiber, protein and ash.•High drying temperature degraded ...the chlorophyll, ascorbic acid and total phenolics.•Sample dried at 40 °C showed better nutritional content than higher temperatures.
Spine gourd (SG) is a nutritionally and medicinally rich seasonal vegetable grown in tropical areas. Therefore, the present study accessed the effect of drying temperature (40, 50, 60, and 70 °C) on chlorophyll, ascorbic acid, proximate, antioxidant, and minerals contents of ultrasound (US) pretreated SG. The increase in drying temperature (40−70 °C) after pretreatment increased the total flavonoids, fiber, protein and ash content compared to freeze-dried (control) sample. In contrast, elevated drying temperature significantly degraded the chlorophyll, ascorbic acid, carbohydrates, fat, total phenolic, and DPPH activity. In addition, the effect of drying temperature on the mineral contents was comparable and a significant variation was observed between control and US pretreated samples. The FTIR spectra revealed that functional group integrity was preserved even at higher drying temperatures. Conclusively, the US pretreated sample dried at 40 °C showed a better nutritional content (comparable to freeze-dried samples) than those dried at higher temperatures. However, samples dried at 70 °C were rich in protein and antioxidants.
Exposure to carcinogenic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is responsible for numerous human health problems. Diet has been found responsible for nearly 88–98% exposure to ...PAHs in humans. Different studies have been conducted worldwide to investigate the role of food processing techniques and food matrix in PAHs' formation and adsorption, which has helped in establishing regulations and guidelines.
The present review focuses on the published research articles on concentrations and profile of PAHs in Indian food products. The levels in Indian diet were compared with those reported for similar food products and categories in international studies, and the associated gaps and future prospects were discussed. This paper holds importance for public health especially for societies having an Indian-influenced diet.
Indian food products belonging to Beverages, Oils, Fruits, Vegetables, Supplements, Chocolates, Traditional items and Marine foods category accumulated PAHs during pre- and post-harvest stages and acted as the main sources of PAHs' exposure to humans. Compared to worldwide studies, studies focusing on PAHs in Indian food products are very few, basic in nature and limited in scope.
•In Indian food products, marine foods exhibited highest PAHs concentration.•PAHs concentration in Indian diet ranges between 0.18 and 61967 μg/kg.•Supplements in International studies have highest PAHs (41273.2 μg/kg) contamination.
Food products such as bread, biscuits, tea, coffee, oils, chocolates, grapes, pepper and fishes belonging to different categories represent a significant part of everyday diet in India and other ...countries having variable cooking techniques. In this study, we evaluated cancer risks of long term exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) through consumption of these products for eight societal groups in India. Total concentrations of PAHs in these products from India ranged from 0.18 to 61967 μg kg−1 and the cancer risk values for the eight sections of Indian population ranged between 7.63E-10 to 5.05E+00, indicating product specific distribution of risk from non-significant to significant levels. Cereals, vegetables and decoctions contributed majorly to cancer risk and the most susceptible group identified was children. The spread of risk estimates followed Burr and Exponential distributions. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to develop information on the health risk faced by Indian population through dietary PAHs.
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•Probabilistic and Deterministic risk estimates for different societal groups was determined.•Cooking and processing lead to higher cancer risk estimates for food products than other sources.•Children are most susceptible group.•Major risk comes from consumption of cereals' based products.•The charring of food products must be controlled during cooking to reduce PAHs linked cancer risk.
•PAH recoveries using conventional methods deviated from EU accepted criteria.•Recoveries of Heavy PAHs by SUPRAS ranged from 71.33 to 112.23% in chicken.•Baseline shift in coffee samples prepared ...with SUPRAS.•PAHs’ recoveries in chicken and coffee by QuEChERS were 62.3–103.9% and 52.6–78.7%.•SUPRAS and QuEChERS needed 69–139 fold lower energy than conventional methods.
This study compared different extraction methods sonication, alkaline hydrolysis, supramolecular solvent microextraction (SUPRAS) and Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe (QuEChERS) along with their greenness. An analytical method was validated for determination of USEPA’s listed 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons’ (PAHs) in cooked chicken and roasted coffee using high pressure liquid chromatography-fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD) with a C18 column. The recoveries with QuEChERS ranged between 62.26 and 103.85% (except Naphthalene and Fluorene) and 52.63–78.69% (except Naphthalene) for chicken and coffee respectively while poor recoveries were observed with conventional methods. With SUPRAS, heavy PAHs’ recovery in chicken was 71.33–112.23%. Limits of detection (LOD) were 0.03–0.06 ng/mL, regression coefficient values were 0.97–0.99 for 6.25–37.50 ng/mL quantification range. Relative standard deviation was found to be below 22%. The time and energy consumption per sample was 42.50 and 69.06 fold and 77.52 and 139.50 fold less with SUPRAS and QuEChERS method respectively as compared to alkaline hydrolysis.
Tandoori cooking is a popular food preparation method in India involving a unique combination of grilling, baking, barbecuing, and roasting processes. This study determined the levels of 16 ...polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in tandoori chicken and assessed the associated health risk. The sum of 16 PAHs concentration ranged from 25.4 to 3733 μg/kg with an average of 440 ± 853 μg/kg. Analyzed samples demonstrated major contribution of 2, 3, and 4 ring PAHs. Diagnostic ratios identified combustion and high-temperature processes as the main source favoring PAHs generation in these samples. Benzo(a)pyrene equivalents and incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) estimates for different population groups (boys, girls, adult males, adult females, elderly males, elderly females) associated with dietary intake of these products ranged from 6.88E-05 to 4.13E-03 and 1.63E-08 to 1.72E-06, respectively. Since the ILCR values fell within the safe limits (1E-06, i.e., nonsignificant), the consumption of tandoori chicken may be considered as safe. The study emphasizes the need for extensive studies on PAHs formation in tandoori food products.
•KMS induced novel blanching were explored.•The blanching reduces the infrared drying time of EFY.•Blanching improves the bioactive compounds in EFY.•Blanching reduces the calcium oxalate in ...EFY.•Microwave blanched samples were superior in quality.
The present study evaluated the effect of various pre-treatments (Potassium metabisulphite (KMS), KMS+Ultrasonication (KMSUS), KMS+Microwave (KMSMW), KMS+Hot water (KMSHWB) followed by infrared drying on the quality of Elephant Foot Yam (EFY). KMSMW-treated samples showed the fastest drying rate and highest moisture diffusivity, whereas the KMS-treated sample had the highest weight gain (171.57 %) in rehydration (80 °C). KMSMW and KMSHWB-treated samples exhibited softer textures in rehydration compared to control. Pre-treated samples had higher water absorption capacity and lower oil absorption capacity compared to the control. Pre-treatments also influenced the amylose content and the highest amylose content was observed for KMSUS (21.25 %). Pre-treatments positively influenced the retention of bioactive compounds and reduced the calcium oxalate (117.37 mg/g to 64.09 mg/g). Among all the pre-treatments, KMSHWB showed higher retention of bioactive compounds viz., TPC (297.67 mg GAE/100 g), TFC (922.22 mg QE/100 g), DPPH scavenging activity (57.91 %), ABTS (1.42 mmol TE/100 g) and lowest calcium oxalate (64.09 mg/100 g).
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