The impacts of agricultural land use are far-reaching and extend to areas outside production. This paper provides an overview of the ecological status of agricultural systems across the European ...Union in the light of recent policy changes. It builds on the previous review of 2001 devoted to the impacts of agricultural intensification in Western Europe. The focus countries are the UK, The Netherlands, Boreal and Baltic countries, Portugal, Hungary and Romania, representing a geographical spread across Europe, but additional reference is made to other countries. Despite many adjustments to agricultural policy, intensification of production in some regions and concurrent abandonment in others remain the major threat to the ecology of agro-ecosystems impairing the state of soil, water and air and reducing biological diversity in agricultural landscapes. The impacts also extend to surrounding terrestrial and aquatic systems through water and aerial contamination and development of agricultural infrastructures (
e.g. dams and irrigation channels). Improvements are also documented regionally, such as successful support of farmland species, and improved condition of watercourses and landscapes. This was attributed to agricultural policy targeted at the environment, improved environmental legislation, and new market opportunities. Research into ecosystem services associated with agriculture may provide further pressure to develop policy that is targeted at their continuous provisioning, fostering motivation of land managers to continue to protect and enhance them.
•Willow leaf cobalt concentrations met the requirements for lambs; grass did not.•Lambs readily consumed willow leaves.•Willow supplemented lambs had significantly higher plasma vitamin B12 ...concentration.•Willow could be used by producers to improve vitamin B12 status.
Cobalt is an essential trace element in sheep for the synthesis of vitamin B12 in the rumen to support growth and prevent clinical deficiencies (Pine). Willow (Salix spp.) leaves contain a high concentration of cobalt (∼6 times the requirement of lambs). The aim of this study was to determine the efficacy of supplementary willow leaves in improving plasma vitamin B12 status of sheep. Weaned lambs (n=24) on ad libitum grass were randomly allocated to one of three groups: Willow (offered up to 300 g of fresh willow leaves per lamb each day); Drench (2.8mg oral cobalt sulphate heptahydrate drench on day 0); Control (received no treatment). Plasma B12 concentration was evaluated for all lambs using blood samples taken on days 0 and 14. Values for plasma B12 concentration were log transformed prior to statistical analysis. At day 14 the mean (± s.d.) concentrations, on the log10 scale, were 3.00 (±0.155) pmol/L, 2.61 (±0.146) pmol/L and 2.55 (±0.214) pmol/L for Willow, Drench and Control, respectively. The corresponding back transformed means were 990 pmol/L, 407 pmol/L, 351 pmol/L, respectively. The value for the Willow treatment was significantly higher than each of the other treatments, which did not differ significantly. Supplementary willow can be used by producers to improve vitamin B12 status in lambs.
Septic tank systems (STS) are a potential source of nutrient emissions to surface waters but few data exist in the UK to quantify their significance for eutrophication. We monitored the impact of STS ...on nutrient concentrations in a stream network around a typical English village over a 1-year period. Septic tank effluent discharging via a pipe directly into one stream was highly concentrated in soluble N (8–63mgL−1) and P (<1–14mgL−1) and other nutrients (Na, K, Cl, B and Mn) typical of detergent and household inputs. Ammonium-N (NH4N) and soluble reactive P (SRP) fractions were dominant (70–85% of total) and average concentrations of nitrite-N (NO2N) were above levels considered harmful to fish (0.1mgL−1). Lower nutrient concentrations were recorded at a ditch and a stream site, but range and average values downstream of rural habitation were still 4 to 10-fold greater than those in upstream sections. At the ditch site, where flow volumes were low, annual flow-weighted concentrations of NH4N and SRP increased from 0.04 and 0.07mgL−1, respectively upstream to 0.55 and 0.21mgL−1 downstream. At the stream site, flow volumes were twice as large and flow-weighted concentrations increased much less; from 0.04 to 0.21mgL−1 for NH4N and from 0.06 to 0.08mgL−1 for SRP. At all sites, largest nutrient concentrations were recorded under low flow and stream discharge was the most important factor determining the eutrophication impact of septic tank systems. The very high concentrations, intercorrelation and dilution patterns of SRP, NH4-N and the effluent markers Na and B suggested that soakaways in the heavy clay catchment soils were not retaining and treating the septic tank effluents efficiently, with profound implications for stream biodiversity. Water companies, water regulators and rural communities therefore need to be made more aware of the potential impacts of STS on water quality so that their management can be optimised to reduce the risk of potential eutrophication and toxicity to aquatic ecosystems during summer low flow periods.
► First direct UK evidence that nutrient emissions from septic tank systems affect water quality in rural areas. ► Septic tank soakaways on impermeable soils failed to adeqautely treat the septic tank effluent. ► The downstream eutrophication impact of septic tank systems largely depends on stream discharge volumes. ► Septic tank systems act as mini-point sources and need to better managed in catchment management planning.
•Zinc and cobalt concentrations of willow leaves were multi-fold higher than sheep requirements.•Leaf selenium concentrations were more dependent on site than tree species.•Metabolisable energy was ...appropriate to support lamb growth in all species but alder was the highest.•Leaf crude protein was higher in spring but should support lamb growth in autumn to.
Silvopastoral agroforestry, the integration of trees into livestock production systems, is an ancient practice with benefits to animal welfare and nutrition. Intensification of farming practices have reduced the presence of trees and hedgerows in the agricultural landscape. Environmental benefits coupled with improvements to ecological resilience and the long-term sustainability of farm productivity have led to a resurgence in interest in silvopastoral farming systems. The objective of this study was to investigate the nutritional composition and potential use of tree leaves as a supplementary fodder for ruminant livestock, with particular reference to sheep.
Leaves (including petioles) were collected during spring (June) and autumn (September) from goat willow (Salix caprea), oak (Quercus spp) and alder (Alnus spp) from three sites in the UK. On the third site samples of ash (Fraxinus excelsior), beech (Fagus sylvatica), sweet chestnut (Castenea sativa) and sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) were also collected. Tree leaves were analysed to determine mineral content, dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), modified acid detergent fibre (MADF) and metabolisable energy (ME) which were then compared to the nutritional requirements of grazing sheep (Ovis aries).
Leaves from all tree species used in this study were able to exceed the dietary ME and CP concentration requirements (NRC) for growing lambs (40 kg lamb @ 150 g/d). Alder contained the most ME and CP of the studied species. There was no significant effect of season although CP was higher in spring than autumn for all tree species.
Zinc and cobalt concentrations were found to be dependent on tree species with negligible site and season effects. All (NRC) sheep requirements of both elements were exceeded by willow, met by alder and not met by oak, willow exceeded these requirements for zinc and cobalt by approximately 3-6 and 10-15 fold respectively. Leaf selenium concentrations were site specific with site 1 almost able to meet maximal requirement, whilst all other sites (all tree species) were around the minimal requirement.
To conclude, ME and CP concentrations of the tree leaves were generally within a requirement range to support adequate growth of lambs if leaves fed alone (not likely in practice). Selenium concentrations were site dependant, iodine was mainly season dependent with tree species effects for zinc and cobalt. The zinc and especially cobalt concentrations of willow leaves were sufficient to suggest that willow could be used as a bio-supplement when fed within a conventional grazing system, especially useful for growing lambs.
Although arable landscapes have a long history, environmental problems have accelerated in recent decades. The effects of these changes are usually externalised, being greater for society as a whole ...than for the farms on which they operate, and incentives to correct them are therefore largely lacking. Arable landscapes are valued by society beyond the farming community, but increased mechanisation and farm size, simplification of crop rotations, and loss of non-crop features, have led to a reduction in landscape diversity. Low intensity arable systems have evolved a characteristic and diverse fauna and flora, but development of high input, simplified arable systems has been associated with a decline in biodiversity. Arable intensification has resulted in loss of non-crop habitats and simplification of plant and animal communities within crops, with consequent disruption to food chains and declines in many farmland species. Abandonment of arable management has also led to the replacement of such wildlife with more common and widespread species. Soils have deteriorated as a result of erosion, compaction, loss of organic matter and contamination with pesticides, and in some areas, heavy metals. Impacts on water are closely related to those on soils as nutrient and pesticide pollution of water results from surface runoff and subsurface flow, often associated with soil particles, which themselves have economic and ecological impacts. Nitrates and some pesticides also enter groundwater following leaching from arable land. Greatest impacts are associated with simplified, high input arable systems. Intensification of arable farming has been associated with pollution of air by pesticides, NO2and CO2, while the loss of soil organic matter has reduced the system’s capacity for carbon sequestration. International trade contributes to global climate change through long distance transport of arable inputs and products. The EU Rural Development Regulation (1257/99) provides an opportunity to implement measures for alleviating ecological impacts of arable management through a combination of cross-compliance and agri-environment schemes. To alleviate the problems described in this paper, such measures should take account of opportunities for public/private partnerships and should integrate social, cultural, economic and ecological objectives for multifunctional land use.
This paper provides an overview of the impacts of rural land use on lowland streamwater phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) concentrations and P loads and sources in lowland streams. Based on weekly ...water quality monitoring, the impacts of agriculture on streamwater P and N hydrochemistry were examined along a gradient of rural–agricultural land use, by monitoring three sets of ‘paired’ (near-adjacent) rural headwater streams, draining catchments which are representative of the major geology, soil types and rural/agricultural land use types of large areas of lowland Britain. The magnitude and timing of P and N inputs were assessed and the load apportionment model (LAM) was applied to quantify ‘continuous’ (point) source and ‘flow-dependent’ (diffuse) source contributions of P to these headwater streams. The results show that intensive arable farming had only a comparatively small impact on streamwater total phosphorus (TP loads), with highly consistent stream diffuse-source TP yields of ca. 0.5
kg-P
ha
−1
year
−1 for the predominantly arable catchments with both clay and loam soils, compared with 0.4
kg-P
ha
−1
year
−1 for low agricultural intensity grassland/woodland on similar soil types. In contrast, intensive livestock farming on heavy clay soils resulted in dramatically higher stream diffuse-source TP yields of 2
kg-P
ha
−1
year
−1. The streamwater hydrochemistry of the livestock-dominated catchment was characterised by high concentrations of organic P, C and N fractions, associated with manure and slurry sources. Across the study sites, the impacts of human settlement were clearly identifiable with effluent inputs from septic tanks and sewage treatment works resulting in large-scale increases in soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) loads and concentrations. At sites heavily impacted by rural settlements, SRP concentrations under baseflow conditions reached several hundred μg-P
L
−1. Load apportionment modelling demonstrated significant ‘point-source’ P inputs to the streams even where there were no sewage treatment works within the upstream catchment. This indicates that, even in sparsely populated rural headwater catchments, small settlements and even isolated groups of houses are sufficient to cause significant nutrient pollution and that septic tank systems serving these rural communities are actually operating as multiple point sources, rather than a diffuse input.
► Enclosed Farmland has shown rising food output and falling biodiversity and pollution. ► One should manage areas of land differently to provide multiple ecosystem services. ► Soil and nutrient ...management is central to ecosystem service delivery. ► Governance and valuation of ecosystem services should be improved.
Here, we review the delivery of ecosystem services from Enclosed Farmland in the UK, and explore how the expected demands for ecosystem services might be met in the future. Most Enclosed Farmland is managed for agriculture; the UK is 60% self-sufficient in foods. Pollinators are in serious decline, but little is known of trends of predators of crop pests. Effects of agriculture on water quality and climate regulation are negative but improving; GHG emissions fell by 20% between 1990 and 2008. Recent declines in numbers of some farmland birds and in plant species richness have been halted, though not reversed. Enclosed Farmland provides considerable leisure and cultural value. Effective delivery of multiple ecosystem services requires improved understanding of how ecosystem services are generated, and of their economics and governance. Food production can be integrated with the delivery of other ecosystem services by promoting a diversity of farming systems and allocating land to different ecosystem services according to its suitability. Approaches include, minimising negative environmental impacts of food production through technology; mitigating environmental harm by managing areas for environmental benefit, from patches within fields to much larger areas; and developing markets and regulations for environmental protection.
The management of wild gamebirds for shooting involves a combination of habitat management (woodland, field boundaries and game crops), winter feeding and control of potential nest predators, any of ...which could benefit other birds, including nationally declining species associated with farmland habitats. Changes in numbers of passerines were monitored over six years in relation to game management on farmland in Leicestershire. Nest success was monitored over four years and, for some species, was inversely related to abundance of breeding corvids. Abundance of breeding passerines increased during the period of game management. Species whose breeding populations have declined nationally (coincident with agricultural intensification) showed the greatest increases in abundance relative both to other species, and to the same nationally declining species in nearby farmland. The precise mechanism by which the game management package contributes to increased breeding numbers is not understood and is likely to differ between species. However, these results show that further integration of wild game management into farming systems could have conservation benefits for nationally declining farmland birds.
Over the last few decades, there have been significant declines in Brown Hare Lepus europaeus numbers throughout Europe, leading to concern for their status in many countries. In Britain, there were ...no quantified data on the extent of this decline, on current population levels, or any baseline against which to monitor future population changes. The need for a quantified national hare survey led to this evaluation of the techniques available to assess hare numbers. Published information on counting hares is reviewed, and various techniques compared by applying them to a number of sites in southern England.
Three basic approaches are available: counts of inactive hares, counts of active hares and indirect methods. Counts of inactive hares include total clearance, wide belt and line transect counts. Total clearance counts give an absolute figure, but are labour intensive and can only be applied to restricted areas. Wide‐belt assessments are difficult to apply in certain habitats and even in open areas tend to produce a substantial over‐estimate. Line transect counts are easy to undertake and are not labour intensive but should only be applied to large areas, or data from several small areas combined. Counts based on active hares are more problematical, because it is difficult to determine what proportion of the population is inactive at any one time. Spotlight counts based on variable circular plots are the most accurate but difficult to apply widely, and twilight counts are very subjective in their interpretation, especially when surveying small areas or areas with a large proportion of concealing habitats. Of the indirect methods, dung pellet counts can be valuable in specific areas but are difficult to apply across a range of habitats.
We concluded that, of the various techniques considered, line transect counts have the greatest potential for a national survey, but need to be stratified so that enough transects are undertaken within each habitat stratum to obtain a reliable mean population estimate for each stratum.
► Ten field wetlands were assessed for sediment retention and establishment cost. ► All the field wetlands had a net accumulation of sediment. ► Higher trapping rates were recorded at sandy ...sites>silty sites>clay sites. ► Establishment costs were low and depended most on location, fencing and drainage. ► Wetlands were good value for money and showed promise for agri-environment schemes.
Diffuse pollution, and the contribution from agriculture in particular, has become increasingly important as pollution from point sources has been addressed by wastewater treatment. Land management approaches, such as construction of field wetlands, provide one group of mitigation options available to farmers. Although field wetlands are widely used for diffuse pollution control in temperate environments worldwide, there is a shortage of evidence for the effectiveness and viability of these mitigation options in the UK. The Mitigation Options for Phosphorus and Sediment Project aims to make recommendations regarding the design and effectiveness of field wetlands for diffuse pollution control in UK landscapes. Ten wetlands have been built on four farms in Cumbria and Leicestershire. This paper focuses on sediment retention within the wetlands, estimated from annual sediment surveys in the first two years, and discusses establishment costs. It is clear that the wetlands are effective in trapping a substantial amount of sediment. Estimates of annual sediment retention suggest higher trapping rates at sandy sites (0.5–6tha−1yr−1), compared to silty sites (0.02–0.4tha−1yr−1) and clay sites (0.01–0.07tha−1yr−1). Establishment costs for the wetlands ranged from £280 to £3100 and depended more on site specific factors, such as fencing and gateways on livestock farms, rather than on wetland size or design. Wetlands with lower trapping rates would also have lower maintenance costs, as dredging would be required less frequently. The results indicate that field wetlands show promise for inclusion in agri-environment schemes, particularly if capital payments can be provided for establishment, to encourage uptake of these multi-functional features.
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