Intensification of the global hydrological cycle, ranging from larger individual precipitation events to more extreme multiyear droughts, has the potential to cause widespread alterations in ...ecosystem structure and function. With evidence that the incidence of extreme precipitation years (defined statistically from historical precipitation records) is increasing, there is a clear need to identify ecosystems that are most vulnerable to these changes and understand why some ecosystems are more sensitive to extremes than others. To date, opportunistic studies of naturally occurring extreme precipitation years, combined with results from a relatively small number of experiments, have provided limited mechanistic understanding of differences in ecosystem sensitivity, suggesting that new approaches are needed. Coordinated distributed experiments (CDEs) arrayed across multiple ecosystem types and focused on water can enhance our understanding of differential ecosystem sensitivity to precipitation extremes, but there are many design challenges to overcome (e.g., cost, comparability, standardization). Here, we evaluate contemporary experimental approaches for manipulating precipitation under field conditions to inform the design of ‘Drought‐Net’, a relatively low‐cost CDE that simulates extreme precipitation years. A common method for imposing both dry and wet years is to alter each ambient precipitation event. We endorse this approach for imposing extreme precipitation years because it simultaneously alters other precipitation characteristics (i.e., event size) consistent with natural precipitation patterns. However, we do not advocate applying identical treatment levels at all sites – a common approach to standardization in CDEs. This is because precipitation variability varies >fivefold globally resulting in a wide range of ecosystem‐specific thresholds for defining extreme precipitation years. For CDEs focused on precipitation extremes, treatments should be based on each site's past climatic characteristics. This approach, though not often used by ecologists, allows ecological responses to be directly compared across disparate ecosystems and climates, facilitating process‐level understanding of ecosystem sensitivity to precipitation extremes.
Arid ecosystems receive precipitation pulses of different sizes that may differentially affect nitrogen (N) losses and N turnover during the growing season. We designed a rainfall manipulation ...experiment in the Patagonian steppe, southern Argentina, where we simulated different precipitation patterns by adding the same amount of water in evenly spaced three-small rainfall events or in one-single large rainfall event, three times during a growing season. We measured the effect of the size of rainfall pulses on N mineralization and N losses by denitrification, ammonia volatilization, and nitrate and ammonia leaching. Irrigation pulses stimulated N mineralization (P < 0.05), with small and frequent pulses showing higher responses than large pulses (P < 0.10). Irrigation effects were transient and did not result in changes in seasonal net N mineralization suggesting a long-term substrate limitation. Water pulses stimulated gaseous N losses by denitrification, with large pulses showing higher responses than small pulses (P < 0.05), but did not stimulate ammonia volatilization. Nitrate leaching also was higher after large than after small precipitation events (P < 0.05). Small events produced higher N transformations and lower N losses by denitrification and nitrate leaching than large events, which would produce higher N availability for plant growth. Climate change is expected to increase the frequency of extreme precipitation events and the proportion of large to small rainfall events. Our results suggest that these changes would result in reduced N availability and a competitive advantage for deep-rooted species that prefer nitrate over ammonia. Similarly, the ammonium:nitrate ratio might decrease because large events foster nitrate losses but not ammonium losses.
Old fields are spreading in the world because of agriculture abandonment, and they show a persistence of exotic plant species with little recovery towards the original vegetation composition. Soil ...biota may also differ between old fields and native grasslands, but were comparatively less studied than plant communities, despite their importance in biogeochemical processes. Here we compared soil bacterial communities of exotic-dominated old fields with those of remnants of native grasslands in the Inland Pampa, Argentina, using the 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing approach. We also characterized plant communities, soil physico-chemical properties, and soil respiration. We expected more diverse soil bacterial communities, with higher heterogeneity, in remnant grasslands than in old fields because of a more diverse and more heterogeneous plant community. However, our results showed that soil bacterial communities had higher Shannon diversity in old fields than in remnant grasslands, but richness was not significantly different. Also we found different bacterial community compositions between grasslands even at a low taxonomic level. On the other hand, old fields harbored less heterogeneous bacterial communities than remnants, and bacteria and plant beta diversity were correlated. Despite contrasting plant and bacterial composition between old fields and remnant grasslands, soil physico-chemical properties were quite similar between grasslands. Overall, our results showed that bacterial communities in grassland soils were associated with changes in plant communities after agricultural abandonment. Plant-microbial feedbacks might regulate plant and soil bacterial community assemblage in old fields, yet further research is needed to demonstrate this potential feedback mechanism.
Field manipulative experiments represent a straightforward way to explore temporal relationships between annual precipitation and productivity. Water exclusion usually involves the use of rainout ...shelters, which are in general formed by a complete roof that intercepts 100% of the rainfall and require complicated mechanisms to move the shelter into place. The rainout-shelter design described here is a fixed-location shelter with a roof consisting of bands of transparent acrylic that blocks different amounts of rainfall while minimally affecting other environmental variables. We constructed thirty$3.76\text{-m}^{2}$shelters in an arid steppe near Río Mayo, Argentina (at 45°41′S, 70°16′W), to impose 30%, 55%, and 80% of rainfall interception. We tested the effectiveness of the design by collecting all the intercepted water in storage tanks and we evaluated changes in soil water content with the time domain reflectometry technique. We also measured soil water content in regular grids to assess the magnitude of the edge effect. We analysed the microclimate impact of the shelters by measuring photosynthetically active radiation and air and soil temperature inside and outside shelters. We did not detect significant differences between the observed and the expected rainfall interception for the 30% and 55% interception treatments but the 80% shelters intercepted 71% of incoming rainfall, which was significantly (P<0.05) lower than the expected value. Soil water content was significantly (P<0.05) higher in the control plots than in the plots with rainout shelter at all dates, except in January (summer). Radiation was not affected by the 30% interception treatment, but the roof with the largest number of acrylics bands (80% interception treatment) reduced incident radiation throughout the day by 10%. Air and soil temperatures were lower under than outside the shelters during the period of highest radiation but the opposite occurred with low radiation but with smaller differences. The two characteristics of the shelter, fixed design and low cost, allow for proper replication in space, which is required in ecological field experiments.
Abstract
Little is currently known about how climate modulates the relationship between plant diversity and soil organic carbon and the mechanisms involved. Yet, this knowledge is of crucial ...importance in times of climate change and biodiversity loss. Here, we show that plant diversity is positively correlated with soil carbon content and soil carbon-to-nitrogen ratio across 84 grasslands on six continents that span wide climate gradients. The relationships between plant diversity and soil carbon as well as plant diversity and soil organic matter quality (carbon-to-nitrogen ratio) are particularly strong in warm and arid climates. While plant biomass is positively correlated with soil carbon, plant biomass is not significantly correlated with plant diversity. Our results indicate that plant diversity influences soil carbon storage not via the quantity of organic matter (plant biomass) inputs to soil, but through the quality of organic matter. The study implies that ecosystem management that restores plant diversity likely enhances soil carbon sequestration, particularly in warm and arid climates.
We have explored species–specific preferences for nitrate $\left({\mathrm{N}\mathrm{O}}_{3}^{-}\right)$ and ammonium $\left({\mathrm{N}\mathrm{H}}_{4}^{+}\right)$ as an alternative niche separation ...in ecosystems where nitrogen (N) is present mostly in inorganic forms. The Patagonian steppe is dominated by shrubs and grasses. Shrubs absorb water and nutrients from deep soil layers, which are poor in N, while grasses have the opposite pattern, absorbing most of their water and nutrients from the upper layers of the soil. We hypothesized that the preferences of shrub and grass for inorganic N forms are different and that the rate of potential N uptake is greater in shrubs than in grasses. To test this hypothesis, we grew individuals of six dominant species in solutions of different ${\mathrm{N}\mathrm{H}}_{4}^{+}:{\mathrm{N}\mathrm{O}}_{3}^{-}$ concentration ratios. Nitrate uptake was found to be higher in shrubs, while ammonium uptake was similar between plant functional types. The ${\mathrm{N}\mathrm{H}}_{4}^{+}:{\mathrm{N}\mathrm{O}}_{3}^{-}$ uptake ratio was significantly lower for shrubs than grasses. Shrubs, which under field conditions have deeper rooting systems than grasses, showed a higher N absorption capacity than grasses and a preference for the more mobile N form, nitrate. Grasses, which had lower N uptake rates than shrubs, preferred ammonium over nitrate. These complementary patterns between grasses and shrubs suggest a more thorough exploitation of resources by diverse ecosystems than those dominated by just one functional type. The loss of one plant functional group or a significant change in its abundance would therefore represent a reduction in resource use efficiency and ecosystem functioning.
Drylands play a dominant role in global carbon cycling and are particularly vulnerable to increasing temperatures, but our understanding of how dryland ecosystems will respond to climatic change ...remains notably poor. Considering that the area of drylands is projected to increase by 11%–23% by 2,100, understanding the impacts of warming on the functions and services furnished by these arid and semi‐arid ecosystems has numerous implications.
In a unique 13‐year ecosystem warming experiment in a south‐western U.S. dryland, we investigated the consequences of rising temperature on Achnatherum hymenoides, a widespread, keystone grass species on the Colorado Plateau. We tracked individual‐ and population‐level responses to identify optimal strategies that may have been masked if considering only one level of plant response.
We found several factors combined to affect the timing and magnitude of plant responses during the 13th year of warming. These included large warming‐induced biomass increases for individual plants, an 8.5‐day advancement in the growing season and strong reductions in photosynthetic rates and population cover.
Importantly, we observed a lack of photosynthetic acclimation and, thus, a warming‐induced downregulation of photosynthetic rates. However, these physiological responses were concurrent with warmed‐plant increases in growing season length and investment in photosynthetic surfaces, demonstrating the species’ ability to balance carbon fixation limitations with warming.
These results, which bring together ecophysiological, phenological, reproductive and morphological assessments of plant responses to warming, suggest that the extent of change in A. hymenoides populations will be based upon numerous adaptive responses that vary in their direction and magnitude. Plant population responses to climatic warming remain poorly resolved, particularly for Earth's drylands, and our in situ experiment assessing multiple strategies offers a novel look into a warmer world.
A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.
A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.
Grazing by domestic animals is an economic activity that can alter the ecosystem structure and functioning of drylands. Some rangelands are experiencing a temporary or complete abandonment of ...grazing, but the effects of these practices on the ecology of drylands are poorly studied. Plant patches are recognized as fertility islands in drylands. Unvegetated inter-patches, far from being lifeless, harbor diverse soil microbial communities, habitually in the form of biocrusts. Here, we determined changes in plant, biocrust, and bare soil cover after grazing cessation over a 63-year period in Patagonian semiarid drylands. We also quantified, at microsite (2.25 m2) and plot (2500 m2) scales, temporal changes in soil multifunctionality by using four specific soil multifunctionality indexes associated with soil carbon, fertility, biogeochemical cycling, and stability. Our results indicate that biocrusts, although with low cover values, colonize new soil areas following grazing cessation, whereas bare soil cover increases at the expense of plants. We found that soil multifunctionality consistently increased with time since grazing cessation at the microsite scale, with biocrusts showing the highest multifunctionality values. We also observed that soil multifunctionality increased over time after grazing cessation at the plot scale, with bare soil and plants being more important than biocrusts due to their greater cover. Overall, our field study shows that the abandonment of grazing leads to a natural recovery of soil functioning in semiarid rangelands, with biocrusts and microbial communities of bare soils playing central roles, but at different spatial scales.
•Biocrust and bare soil cover increase but plant cover decreases after 63 years of grazing cessation.•Biocrusts show higher soil multifunctionality than plants or soils at a microsite scale.•Bare soil and plants contribute the most to soil multifunctionality at a plot scale.•Multifunctionality increases with time since grazing abandonment in all microsites.•All microsites provide soil multifunctionality as a spatial continuum in drylands.
Ecosystem services have been extensively studied in recent decades. Most of the thousands of scholarly papers published on the subject have focused on describing the production, spatial extent, and ...valuation of such services. Human reliance on ecosystem services is a function of ecosystems' capacity to supply and societal demand for these benefits. However, considerably more attention has been devoted to the supply side than to the demand for them. Sustainable land management depends on reconciling supply of and demand for ecosystem services among different stakeholders. The emphasis is now shifting from the supply of ecosystem services to attaining a balance between supply and demand. Here, we illustrate the demand for rangeland ecosystem services, describe current changes in societal demand, and present a specific provisioning service to exemplify the dynamic nature of reconciling ecosystem-service supply and demand.
Service crops (or cover crops) play an important role in simplified agricultural systems. Service crops reduce agricultural external inputs and increase ecosystem services but their ability to ...mitigate nitrous oxide (N
O) emissions is still uncertain. The main objective of this study was to evaluate N
O emissions in soybean-soybean (Glycine max L. Merr) rotations that included different service crops. Treatments included continuous soybean with winter fallow and soybean with three service crops: oat (Avena sativa L.), vetch (Vicia villosa Roth.), and a mixture of oat and vetch in a randomized complete block design. Service crops were sown 2 months after soybean harvest and were terminated 2 months before soybean planting. Nitrous oxide emissions were determined during the fourth year of the field experiment. We found that service crops did not significantly affect overall mean N
O emission rates, with mean emission rates from the fallow, oat, vetch, and oat-vetch treatments of 1.82 ± 0.35, 1.95 ± 0.34, 2.71 ± 0.43, and 2.42 ± 0.42 kg N
O-N ha
per year, respectively. Service crops with low C/N ratios (vetch and oat-vetch mixtures) significantly increased N
O emissions in spring, after their termination. Overall, soil inorganic N content (NO
or NH
) was the main driver that explained the N
O emissions from different treatments, whereas water-filled pore space controlled the temporal variability of emissions. Our results suggest that service crops with a very short growing season may increase soil N availability for cash crops, but do not reduce N
O emissions due to long periods of high N availability without crops.
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