Fifteen years after the 1999 NATO bombings, a number of emblematic buildings in Belgrade still lie in ruins and are at the center of debates surrounding their reconstruction. This article examines ...the collective memory and narratives of the NATO bombings through a spatial lens, looking at how architectural discourses of reconstruction relate to multiple understandings and narratives of the bombings themselves. It focuses on how architects in Belgrade discuss and envision the reconstruction of buildings such as the Generalštab in relationship to the collective memories of political violence and war. The article explores the continuum between calls for full restoration and memorialization, by discussing how architects relate to the bombing of 1999 on personal and professional levels, and how narratives of the bombing influence architectural visions for the reconstruction itself. All in all, the article argues that architectural reconstruction, collective memory, and national identity shape each other. On the one hand, reconstruction responds to collective memory as architects make sense of the collective memory of war; on the other hand, reconstructed urban space reshapes memory by creating a new cadre matériel for remembrance.
The main objective of the research is to demonstrate the possible approaches to treatment of architectural heritage largely destroyed by bombardment, particularly to give an alternative method in ...reconstruction of bombarded urban landmarks, in regards to negative emotional attachment (detachment or alienation). The background research is based on the essential theories and studies connected to the treatment of bombarded places and war architecture, architecture of ruins, memory, identity, and emotional attachment, reflecting on reconstruction, conservation, and revitalisation methods. The hypothesis of the research is that the emotional attachment defines place identity. The paper focuses on the case study of the bombarded urban landmark of Generalštab complex in Belgrade. Using a questionnaire which involved 235 respondents, a relationship was established between the citizens of Belgrade and the Generalštab complex. The questionnaire gathered information on (1) recognisability, values, and significance, (2) emotional connection, and (3) citizens’ attitudes to possible approaches on the treatment of the Generalštab in the future. Finally, as a result of comprehensive analysis, the paper proposes one of the potential architectural approaches towards Generalštab complex, which is in line with the principles of the profession, but also the citizens’ attitudes and the needs of the City of Belgrade. Overall, the research aims to show the complexity of the observed topics, as well as an attempt to raise and develop the awareness about the importance and value of the bombarded architectural heritage.
The article provides activities of the Yugoslav Army (Vojska Jugoslavi-je, VJ) and especially its General Staff in the period prior to and after the federal Yugoslav election held on 24th September ...2000. The majority of initial activities were linked to the political situation in Montenegro. The article reveals the preparation of the VJ “top brass” to deploy the forces against the protesters during the mass post-election rallies in Belgrade and all over Serbia. Those protests led to Slobodan Milošević’s fall from political power and from his posi-tion as president of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The newly elected FRY president became Vojislav Koštunica, leader of the Democratic Party of Serbia, who soon became accepted as the supreme commander of the Yugoslav Army’s General Staff as the key military institution in the state. In the beginning it looked like the Army would take part against the protesters using standard repertoire of armored, engineer, and special forces. A preserved document testifies that preparations for intervention had been done, but that the huge opposition movement, masses of people on the streets, and the general disappointment with Milošević’s twelve-year rule prevented the army from taking any action in the streets. The calming down of the post-revolutionary events and the top military brass remaining unchanged was satisfactory to the General Staff. An article was written on the unrevealed Vojska Jugoslavije documents. In 2003, Federal Defense Minister Boris Tadić asked the General Staff to provide the relevant documents on the role of the VJ in events around and during 5th October. The other group of documents represents transcripts from the General Staff meetings held in September and October of 2000, which had been declassified by that time by Lt General Ponoš, chief of the General Staff.
Digitalni multimedijalni sadržaj postaje zastupljeniji i sve više se razmenjuje putem računarskih mreža i javnih kanala (satelitske komunikacije, bežične mreže, internet, itd.) koji predstavljaju ...nebezbedne medijume za prenos informacija osetljive sadržine. Sve više na značaju dobijaju mehanizmi kriptološke zaštite slika i video sadržaja. Tradicionalni sistemi kriptografske obrade u sistemima za prenos ovih vrsta informacija garantuju visok stepen sigurnosti, ali i imaju svoje nedostatke - visoku cenu implementacije i znatno kašnjenje u prenosu podataka. Pomenuti nedostaci se prevazilaze primenom algoritama selektivnog šifrovanja. / Digital multimedia content is becoming widely used and increasingly exchanged over computer network and public channels (satelite, wireless networks, Internet, etc.) which is unsecured transmission media for ex changing that kind of information. Mechanisms made to encrypt image and video data are becoming more and more significant. Traditional cryptographic techniques can guarantee a high level of security but at the cost of expensive implementation and important transmission delays. These shortcomings can be exceeded using selective encryption algorithms. Introduction In traditional image and video content protection schemes, called fully layered, the whole content is first compressed. Then, the compressed bitstream is entirely encrypted using a standard cipher (DES - Data Encryption Algorithm, IDEA - International Data Encryption Algorithm, AES - Advanced Encryption Algorithm etc.). The specific characteristics of this kind of data, high-transmission rate with limited bandwidth, make standard encryption algorithms inadequate. Another limitation of traditional systems consists of altering the whole bitstream syntax which may disable some codec functionalities on the delivery site coder and decoder on the receiving site. Selective encryption is a new trend in image and video content protection. As its name says, it consists of encrypting only a subset of the data. The aim of selective encryption is to reduce the amount of data to encrypt while preserving a sufficient level of security. Theoretical foundation of selective encryption The first theoretical foundation of selective encryption was given indirectly by Claude Elwood Shannon in his work about communication theory of secrecy systems. It is well known that statistics for image and video data differ much from classical text data. Indeed, image and video data are strongly correlated and have strong spatial/temporal redundancy. Evaluation criteria for selective encryption algorithm performance evaluation We need to define a set of evaluation criteria that will help evaluating and comparing selective encryption algorithms. - Tunability - Visual degradation - Cryptographic security - Encryption ratio - Compression friendliness - Format compliance - Error tolerance Classification of selective encryption algorithms One possible classification of selective encryption algorithms is relative to when encryption is performed with respect to compression. This classification is adequate since it has intrinsic consequences on selective encryption algorithms behavior. We consider three classes of algorithms as follows: - Precompression - Incompression - Postcompression Overview of selective encryption algorithms In accordance with their precedently defined classification, selective encryption algorithms were compared, briefly described with advantages and disadvantages and their quality was assessed. Applications Selective encryption mechanisms became more and more important and can be applied in many different areas. Some potential application areas of this mechanism are: - Monitoring encrypted content - PDAs (PDA - Personal Digital Assistant), mobile phones, and other mobile terminals - Multiple encryptions - Transcodability/scalability of encrypted content Conclusion As we can see through foregoing analysis, we can notice that tunability, cryptographic security and error tolerance are the main unsatisfied criteria. Selective encryption algorithms based on static encryption parameters do not allow tunability. Tunability is a desirable property especially for content protection systems targeting different applications with different requirements in terms of security or visual degradation and different devices with different capabilities in terms of memory, computational power, or display capabilities. It is therefore appreciated to design a tunable selective encryption algorithm with dynamic encryption parameters.
Spionage steht bis heute in der öffentlichen wie auch in der geschichtswissenschaftlichen Wahrnehmung oftmals gleichbedeutend für den militärischen Nachrichtendienst. Dabei macht sich dieses ...verkürzte Verständnis an dramatischen und prominenten Einzelfällen fest. Der Aufsatz zielt darauf ab, Spionage als militärische Aufgabe für die Gründungsphase der militärischen Nachrichtendienste durch eine empirische Untersuchung der Akteursgruppe besser zu verstehen. Dazu erschließen die Autoren erstmals die Zahl, das soziale Herkommen und die besonderen Einsatzarten der Agentinnen und Agenten im Dienst des preußisch-deutschen Heeres während des Ersten Weltkrieges.
Erkundungsreisen durch Offiziere waren gegen Ende des 19. und zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts eine beliebte und international übliche Methode, um an militärische Informationen über ausländische ...Staaten und deren Armeen zu gelangen. Auch der preußisch-deutsche Generalstab machte im Vorfeld des Ersten Weltkrieges ausgiebig von der Möglichkeit Gebrauch, Offiziere mit bestimmten Aufträgen in bisher unbekannte Gebiete zu schicken. Rekognoszierungen dienten unter anderem dazu, fremde Festungen auszuspähen, Terrainstudien zu betreiben, die Dislokation des Gegners festzustellen oder den Zustand von Garnisonen und Truppen zu evaluieren. Gerade mit den verdeckt durchgeführten Reisen ging allerdings ein großes Risiko einher, da die Festsetzung der betreffenden Offiziere rasch außenpolitische Spannungen verursachen konnte, die das deutsche Auswärtige Amt vermieden wissen wollte. Kurz vor Ausbruch des Ersten Weltkrieges setzte sich die Behörde daher beim Generalstab und beim Kriegsministerium mit ihrem Wunsch durch, die risikoreichen Reisen einzuschränken oder teilweise ganz zu verbieten.
Seit dem Herbst 1905 befürchtete die deutsche Militärführung britische Landungen in Schleswig-Holstein oder Dänemark. Ein britisches Korps könnte zur Unterstützung Frankreichs an Deutschlands ...Nordflanke landen, den Nordostseekanal unterbrechen und auf Kiel und Hamburg vorstoßen. Tatsächlich glaubte der Große Generalstab lange daran, die »Nordoption« sei der britischen Militärführung weitaus sympathischer als eine Landung in Frankreich. Der Beitrag geht der Frage nach, welche Auswirkungen diese Ansichten auf das Handeln des preußisch-deutschen Generalstabs sowie auf dessen Einschätzung eines britischen Kriegsbeitrags hatten. Beleuchtet werden dabei militär‑, außen‑, innen‑ und wirtschaftspolitische Aspekte.
Le présent article concerne la ruine post-catastrophe qui subsiste dans le temps. On ne parle pas ici d’une ruine du temps, mais d’une ruine inattendue, voire même non désirée, qui habite ...l’espace-temps en attente d’une transformation. Cette ruine ne tient plus d’une nostalgie du passé, elle n’est plus cette trace que l’on préserve volontairement, il s’agit d’un entre-deux qui se veut éphémère. Il arrive pourtant parfois que cette ruine subsiste et que l’éphémère devienne continu. Comment penser cet éphémère continu ? Pour mieux comprendre cette problématique et approfondir un questionnement exploratoire sur cette notion nouvelle, nous proposons de nous pencher sur l’exemple du Generalstab à Belgrade (Serbie).
This paper examines the complex entanglement of national and international violence and control in Belgrade. In particular, the ways in which the identity of the city has been affected in the ...aftermath of NATO’s 1999 Operation Allied Force as manifest in the hollowness of the unreconstructed Generalstab complex. The notion of hollowness presents an oppportunity to reformulate and reconsider the identity of Belgrade and Serbia as well as proffer an opening towards reconceptualising post-war reconstruction.
Belgrade maintient, en 2015, la plupart des ruines du bombardement de l’OTAN de 1999. Ces anciens hauts lieux sont désormais symboles du démantèlement de la Yougoslavie. Dans un contexte où la ville ...tend à changer d’image, ils sont appelés à disparaître. Certains subsistent toutefois, pris entre un passé contradictoire et un avenir incertain. Ces lieux en perte de sens sont désormais marqués par une attente qui pourrait s’avérer aussi créatrice que stérile. Ce sont des lieux de l’en-attendant. Pour penser ces lieux importants de l’espace post-yougoslave, nous aborderons le cas du Generalštab, monument culturel et figure de proue du Belgrade bombardé
Belgrade still has ruins from its bombing by NATO in 1999. These high places symbolizing the breakup of Yugoslavia are expected to disappear as the city’s image evolves. But some of them remain, trapped between a contradictory past and an uncertain future. Marked by expectations, creative or sterile, these “places in awaiting” are slowly becoming placeless as they lose meaning. The case of the former headquarters of the Yugoslavian Army (Generalštab), a cultural monument and emblem of bombed Belgrade, is examined.
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