Demographic bottlenecks erode genetic diversity and may increase endangered species' extinction risk via decreased fitness and adaptive potential. The genetic status of species is generally assessed ...using neutral markers, whose dynamic can differ from that of functional variation due to selection. The MHC is a multigene family described as the most important genetic component of the mammalian immune system, with broad implications in ecology and evolution. The genus Lynx includes four species differing immensely in demographic history and population size, which provides a suitable model to study the genetic consequences of demographic declines: the Iberian lynx being an extremely bottlenecked species and the three remaining ones representing common and widely distributed species. We compared variation in the most variable exon of the MHCI and MHCII-DRB loci among the four species of the Lynx genus.
The Iberian lynx was characterised by lower number of MHC alleles than its sister species (the Eurasian lynx). However, it maintained most of the functional genetic variation at MHC loci present in the remaining and genetically healthier lynx species at all nucleotide, amino acid, and supertype levels.
Species-wide functional genetic diversity can be maintained even in the face of severe population bottlenecks, which caused devastating whole genome genetic erosion. This could be the consequence of divergent alleles being retained across paralogous loci, an outcome that, in the face of frequent gene conversion, may have been favoured by balancing selection.
A 6-month-old female Iberian lynx (
Lynx pardinus
) cub that was severely affected by mange died in September 2016 in the Montes de Toledo (Spain) with crusts and fissures on its face, outer ears, ...nipples and footpads. The body condition of the cub was very poor, and it also had a mandibular abscess and a severely ankylosed luxation on its left knee. After confirming that the origin of the deceased cub’s dermal lesions was
Sarcoptes scabiei
, the subsequent search for ectoparasites and a comparison of histopathological and immunohistochemical findings in all sympatric lynxes handled (
n
= 30) and submitted for necropsy (
n
= 4) during 2016 and 2017 revealed the presence of
S. scabiei
mites and/or milder mange compatible lesions in five members of her family group, which was treated against mange together with two exposed contiguous family groups. An ELISA developed by the authors showed the presence of antibodies against
S. scabiei
in the deceased female cub and one brother. The presence of concomitant immunosuppressive factors in the dead female cub and the results obtained for the other sympatric lynxes studied since 2016 suggest that
S. scabiei
had a limited effect on immune-competent Iberian lynxes in the local population of the Montes de Toledo. However, a different evolution and relevance of sarcoptic mange in different populations—or even in the same one in the presence of immunosuppressive factors—cannot be ruled out, thus confirming the need for further research in order to attain a complete comprehension of the epidemiology and the real threat that this ectoparasitic disease may imply for
L. pardinus.
Serum samples from 282 wild carnivores from different regions of Spain were tested for antibodies to
Toxoplasma gondii by the modified agglutination test using a cut-off value of 1:25. Antibodies to
...T. gondii were found in 22 of 27 (81.5%) of Iberian lynx (
Lynx pardinus), 3 of 6 European wildcats (
Felis silvestris), 66 of 102 (64.7%) red foxes (
Vulpes vulpes), 15 of 32 (46.9%) wolves (
Canis lupus), 26 of 37 (70.3%) Eurasian badgers (
Meles meles), 17 of 20 (85.0%) stone martens (
Martes foina), 4 of 4 pine martens (
Martes martes), 6 of 6 Eurasian otters (
Lutra lutra), 4 of 4 polecats (
Mustela putorius), 1 of 1 ferret (M
ustela putorius furo), 13 of 21 (61.9%) European genets (
Genetta genetta), and 13 of 22 (59.1%) Egyptian mongooses (
Herpestes ichneumon). Serological results indicated a widespread exposure to
T. gondii among wild carnivores in Spain. The high
T. gondii seroprevalence in Iberian lynx and the European wildcat reported here may be of epidemiologic significance because seropositive cats might have shed oocysts.
Iberian lynx (
Lynx pardinus
) reintroductions are part of this species’ conservation program to ensure its re-establishment and survival in areas of historical presence. Release protocols include ...hard-release, directly in the field, and soft-release, allowing reintroduced animals to acclimatize to the new environment site, which may lead to higher survival and reproductive rates. During soft-release reintroductions in Extremadura (Spain), we recorded individual and social behaviors of four released Iberian lynxes in a 1.5-ha enclosure, divided into three longitudinal strips to simplify behavioral data collection: zone 1, or releasing area, containing an additional feeding point; zone 2, or central zone, with rocks and natural rabbit refuges; and zone 3, or the farthest zone from the releasing area, of abundant arboreal vegetation. Our results showed that “pacing”, “lying” and “patrolling” were the most common behaviors observed in the four lynxes. Social interactions such as “approach”, and “lordosis” were the most common and indicated significant differences between individuals. Concerning sexes, males exhibited the behavior “showing indifference,” unlike females that never presented it. Data collected revealed that the lynx had a preference for zone 3 of the enclosure. Pre-release behavior monitoring is critical I n Iberian lynx soft-release reintroductions in order to ensure their acclimatization to the new site, identify their survival skills and allow their establishment in the reintroduction areas.
The known distribution of the Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus within the Iberian Peninsula since the Middle Pleistocene and the lack of reliable records of Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx in this region have led ...to the assumption that the Iberian lynx was the sole inhabitant of Iberia. In this study, we identified ancient mitochondrial DNA (a total of 337 base pairs from the control region and cytochrome b) from eight northern Iberian lynx remains as Eurasian lynx. These results confirm the presence of Eurasian lynx in northern Iberia from the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary until just a few centuries ago. The paleontological record and our data indicate a population replacement of the Iberian lynx by the Eurasian lynx during the Pleistocene/Holocene transition in the Cantabrian cornice of Spain. Phylogeographic patterns of Late Pleistocene and Holocene Eurasian lynx from Iberia, France, Italy and Denmark show that this felid had a more complex phylogeographic history in the past than modern day populations suggest.
Lethal interactions between members of the carnivore guild are well represented in literature. In the Iberian lynx, interspecific killing (without prey consumption) of some mesocarnivores, such as ...the Egyptian mongoose, genet, and red fox, has been reported. Although vaguely documented, evidence suggests feral cats fall victim to interactions with this apex predator. Here, we describe the first documented case of interspecific killing and partial consumption of a feral cat by an adult male Iberian lynx reintroduced in Southwestern Spain. Ulterior analyses demonstrated that the victim was viremic to feline leukemia virus. To prevent the dissemination of the virus and a potential outbreak in the Iberian lynx population, control measures, including the clinical evaluation of the male Iberian lynx, and intensive monitoring were implemented in order to detect intraspecific interactions. After 3 weeks, the lynx was evaluated, presented good condition and resulted negative to both ELISA and RT-PCR. Thanks to the long-term monitoring, this case could be detected and measures to prevent an outbreak could be implemented.
There is growing evidence that two Lynx species were present in Spain until recent times: the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) in Mediterranean areas and the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in the Atlantic and ...Alpine ones. The recent presence of the Eurasian lynx is mainly deduced from stories and news about fierce animals known as “lobos cervales” or “tigres”, these being dangerous beasts for livestock, a condition that is difficult to associate with the Iberian lynx. In this work, we provide new records of lynx in NE Iberian Peninsula that blur the geographic boundaries between both species. The contact between the Iberian and Eurasian lynxes could explain the signs of hybridization detected between them.
The Iberian lynx, (
Lynx pardinus), is the most endangered felid in the world. To determine whether sympatric carnivores are reservoirs of pathogens posing a disease risk for the lynx, evidence of ...exposure to 17 viral, bacterial and protozoan agents was investigated in 176 carnivores comprising 26 free-living lynx, 53 domestic cats, 28 dogs, 33 red foxes (
Vulpes vulpes), 24 Egyptian mongooses (
Herpestes ichneumon), 10 common genets (
Genetta genetta) and 2 Eurasian badgers (
Meles meles) in the areas inhabited by the last two populations of Iberian lynx, both in Andalusia (South-Western Spain).
The results indicated that the lynx had low rates of contact with viral pathogens, with one seropositive finding each for feline leukemia virus, parvovirus and canine adenovirus-1, whereas contact with bacteria and protozoa appeared more frequent. Active infections with parvovirus,
Ehrlichia spp.,
Mycobacterium bovis,
Leptospira interrogans and
Cytauxzoon spp. were confirmed. In contrast, 53% of the domestic cats were exposed to some infectious agent (prevalence range 4.5–11.4%). Antibodies to canine distemper virus and parvovirus were frequently found in dogs (32% and 42%, respectively) and foxes (30% and 12%). Past or present infections with parvovirus,
Ehrlichia spp.,
Chlamydophila spp.,
M. bovis,
Salmonella enterica,
L. interrogans,
Toxoplasma gondii, and
Neospora caninum were also detected in these and other species surveyed.
Questionnaires to owners revealed that 14% of the dogs but none of the cats had been vaccinated, and no cat had been neutered. Based on the apparent absence of acquired immunity of the lynx against infectious agents, the frequent detection of agents among sympatric carnivores, and the reported lack of immunocompetence of the Iberian lynx, a disease outbreak among the local abundant carnivores may pose a serious disease risk for lynx conservation.
•We described the development of daily activity in captive Iberian lynx cubs.•We analyzed the ontogeny of circadian rhythm in captive Iberian lynx cubs.•Daily activity was stabilized by 50% from the ...third month of life.•Captive Iberian lynx showed a crepuscular circadian pattern similar to that observed in wild lynx.
The aim of this paper is to describe the ontogeny of the circadian activity rhythms in captive-born Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) from birth to subadult age and to verify if they develop a bimodal circadian pattern similar to the one they show in the wild. The amount of daily activity and the circadian rhythmicity of 61 Iberian lynx (48 mother-raised and 13 hand-reared) cubs were studied in two breeding centers. During the first month of life, the cubs were active 30% of the day. Activity increased up to 50% during the following two weeks, and then it remained constant until the end of the lynx physical development. The location of the breeding center affected the amount of daily activity of the cubs probably as result of different climatic conditions. Once the lynx cubs had completed their development, there was no difference in the time spent active between wild and captive lynx. Newborns had a constant level of activity throughout the day (24h) during the first month of life. During the second month, once they had developed sufficiently to leave the den, a crepuscular bimodal circadian rhythm started to emerge. This pattern was completely defined by the third month of life. The overlap in circadian activity was over 0.88 when comparing the sexes, breeding centers and rearing methods. However, there was a significant difference between mother-raised and hand-reared cubs – the latter being more active in the morning–, as well as between breeding centers – again due to climate differences. Finally, an overlap of 0.85 in circadian activity pattern was observed between wild and captive lynx, although the wild animals were more active at night.
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