Doñana National Park (DNP) in southern Spain is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve where commercial hunting and wildlife artificial feeding do not take place and traditional cattle husbandry still exists. ...Herein, we hypothesized that Mycobacterium bovis infection prevalence in wild ungulates will depend on host ecology and that variation in prevalence will reflect variation in the interaction between hosts and environmental risk factors. Cattle bTB reactor rates increased in DNP despite compulsory testing and culling of infected animals. In this study, 124 European wild boar, 95 red deer, and 97 fallow deer were sampled from April 2006 to April 2007 and analyzed for M. bovis infection. Modelling and GIS were used to identify risk factors and intra and inter-species relationships. Infection with M. bovis was confirmed in 65 (52.4%) wild boar, 26 (27.4%) red deer and 18 (18.5%) fallow deer. In the absence of cattle, wild boar M. bovis prevalence reached 92.3% in the northern third of DNP. Wild boar showed more than twice prevalence than that in deer (p<0.001). Modelling revealed that M. bovis prevalence decreased from North to South in wild boar (p<0.001) and red deer (p<0.01), whereas no spatial pattern was evidenced for fallow deer. Infection risk in wild boar was dependent on wild boar M. bovis prevalence in the buffer area containing interacting individuals (p<0.01). The prevalence recorded in this study is among the highest reported in wildlife. Remarkably, this high prevalence occurs in the absence of wildlife artificial feeding, suggesting that a feeding ban alone would have a limited effect on wildlife M. bovis prevalence. In DNP, M. bovis transmission may occur predominantly at the intra-species level due to ecological, behavioural and epidemiological factors. The results of this study allow inferring conclusions on epidemiological bTB risk factors in Mediterranean habitats that are not managed for hunting purposes. Our results support the need to consider wildlife species for the control of bTB in cattle and strongly suggest that bTB may affect animal welfare and conservation.
The Iberian lynx, endemic to the Iberian Peninsula, is the most threatened carnivore in Europe and the most endangered felid in the world. Widely distributed throughout Iberia during the Pleistocene ...and Holocene it is now confined to two small populations in southern Spain. Lynx species differentiation, based solely on morphological analysis from skeletal traits, is a difficult task and can potentially lead to misidentification. In order to verify whether Iberian lynx had a wider geographical distribution in the past, we successfully sequenced 152 base pairs (bp) of the cytochrome b gene and 183bp of the mitochondrial control region in 20 Late Pleistocene and Holocene fossil remains of Lynx sp. from southern Europe. Our results confirm the presence of Iberian lynx outside the Iberian Peninsula demonstrating that this is a palaeoendemic species that had a wider distribution range in southern Europe during the Holocene and the Late Pleistocene. In addition, we documented the presence of both Palaearctic extant lynx species in the Arene Candide (north Italy) site during the Last Glacial Maximum.
•Ancient DNA analysis confirms that the Iberian lynx had a wider distribution range.•Taxonomic uncertainties in fossil remains can be solved with ancient DNA studies.•Both Palaearctic extant lynx species were present in north Italy during the Last Glacial Maximum.
Population viability might become compromised by the loss of genetic diversity and the accumulation of inbreeding resulting from population decline and fragmentation. The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) ...provides a paradigmatic example of a species at the verge of extinction, and because of the well‐documented and different demographic histories of the two remaining populations (Doñana and Andújar), it provides the opportunity to evaluate the performance of analytical methods commonly applied to recently declined populations. We used mitochondrial sequences and 36 microsatellite markers to evaluate the current genetic status of the species and to assess the genetic signatures of its past history. Mitochondrial diversity was extremely low with only two haplotypes, alternatively fixed in each population. Both remnant populations have low levels of genetic diversity at microsatellite markers, particularly the population from Doñana, and genetic differentiation between the two populations is high. Bayesian coalescent‐based methods suggest an earlier decline starting hundreds of years ago, while heterozygosity excess and M‐ratio tests did not provide conclusive and consistent evidence for recent bottlenecks. Also, a model of gene flow received overwhelming support over a model of pure drift. Results that are in conflict with the known recent demography of the species call for caution in the use of these methods, especially when no information on previous demographic history is available. Overall, our results suggest that current genetic patterns in the Iberian lynx are mainly the result of its recent decline and fragmentation and alerts on possible genetic risks for its persistence. Conservation strategies should explicitly consider this threat and incorporate an integrated genetic management of wild, captive and re‐introduced populations, including genetic restoration through translocations.
The relation among inbreeding, heterozygosity, and fitness has been studied primarily among outbred populations, and little is known about these phenomena in endangered populations. Most researchers ...conclude that the relation between coefficient of inbreeding estimated from pedigrees and fitness traits (inbreeding-fitness correlations) better reflects inbreeding depression than the relation between marker heterozygosity and fitness traits (heterozygosity-fitness correlations). However, it has been suggested recently that heterozygosity-fitness correlations should only be expected when inbreeding generates extensive identity disequilibrium (correlations in heterozygosity and homozygosity across loci throughout the genome). We tested this hypothesis in Mohor gazelle (Gazella dama mhorr) and Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus). For Mohor gazelle, we calculated the inbreeding coefficient and measured heterozygosity at 17 microsatellite loci. For Iberian lynx, we measured heterozygosity at 36 microsatellite loci. In both species we estimated semen quality, a phenotypic trait directly related to fitness that is controlled by many loci and is affected by inbreeding depression. Both species showed evidence of extensive identity disequilibrium, and in both species heterozygosity was associated with semen quality. In the Iberian lynx the low proportion of normal sperm associated with low levels of heterozygosity was so extreme that it is likely to limit the fertility of males. In Mohor gazelle, although heterozygosity was associated with semen quality, inbreeding coefficient was not. This result suggests that when coefficient of inbreeding is calculated on the basis of a genealogy that begins after a long history of inbreeding, the coefficient of inbreeding fails to capture previous demographic information because it is a poor estimator of accumulated individual inbreeding. We conclude that among highly endangered species with extensive identity disequilibrium, examination of heterozygosity-fitness correlations may be an effective way to detect inbreeding depression, whereas inbreeding-fitness correlations may be poor indicators of inbreeding depression if the pedigree does not accurately reflect the history of inbreeding. La relación entre endogamia, heterocigosidad y adaptabilidad ha sido estudiada en poblaciones exogámicas principalmente, y se conoce poco de estos fenómenos en poblaciones en peligro. La mayoría de los investigadores concluyen que la relación entre el coeficiente de endogamia estimado a partir de los pedigrís y los atributos de adaptabilidad (correlaciones endogamia-adaptabilidad) refleja mejor la depresión endogámica que la relación entre la heterocigosidad y los atributos de adaptabilidad (correlaciones heterocigosidad-adaptabilidad). Sin embargo, recientemente se ha sugerido que las correlaciones heterocigosidad-adaptabilidad solo podrían esperarse cuando la endogamia genera desequilibrio extensivo de identidad (correlaciones en heterocigosidad y homocigosidad en loci en todo el genoma). Probamos esta hipótesis en la gacela de Mohr (Gazella dama mhorr) y el lince ibérico (Lynx pardinus). Para la gacela de Mohr, calculamos el coeficiente de endogamia y medimos la heterocigosidad en 17 loci microsaltélites. Para el lince ibérico, medimos la heterocigosidad en 36 loci microsatélite. En ambas especies estimamos la calidad del semen, un atributo fenotípico directamente relacionado con la adaptabilidad que es controlado por muchos loci y que es afectado por la depresión endogámica. Ambas especies mostraron evidencia de un desequilibrio extensivo de identidad, y en ambas especies la heterocigosidad fue asociada con la calidad del semen. En el lince ibérico, la baja proporción de esperma normal asociada con bajos niveles de heterocigosidad fue tan extrema que es probable que limite la fertilidad de machos. En la gacela de Mohr, aunque la heterocigosidad fue asociada con la calidad del semen, el coeficiente de endogamia no lo fue. Este resultado sugiere que cuando el coeficiente de endogamia es calculado con base en una genealogía que comienza después de una larga historia de endogamia, el coeficiente de endogamia falla en la captura de información demográfica previa porque es un estimador pobre de la endogamia individual acumulada. Concluimos que en especies críticamente en peligro con desequilibrio extensivo de identidad, el examen de las correlaciones heterocigosidad-adaptabilidad puede ser una forma efectiva para detectar la depresión por endogamia, mientras que la correlaciones endogamia-adaptabilidad pueden ser indicadores pobres de la depresión por endogamia si el pedigrí no refleja con precisión la historia de la endogamia.
In 2015 10 Iberian lynxes Lynx pardinus were released in south-eastern Portugal, within the framework of a Spanish–Portuguese reintroduction project. We examined each individual's use of space and ...social interactions during the first year after their release. Lynxes were selected for reintroduction according to behavioural, genetic and health criteria and fitted with collars with VHF and global positioning systems. Both males and females went through an exploratory phase that lasted 65–105 days. The lynxes did not exhibit any movement directionality from the release site during the exploratory period. During August–December 2015 a stable nucleus comprising seven individuals (four males, three females) was established south-west of the release enclosure. Although the males had a slightly larger mean home range (11.18 ± SE 1.36 km2) than females (9.87 ± SE 8.71 km2), the difference was not significant. The knowledge obtained during the first year of the lynx reintroduction project in Portugal is critical to support the future of this reintroduction strategy. Our results suggest that once the soft release technique is no longer possible because of logistical constraints on the construction of more enclosures, new individuals should be released in unoccupied areas surrounded by occupied territories. This will promote strong social ties to the resident population and prevent lynx dispersal.
The restoration of Iberian lynx (
) populations in Extremadura (Southwestern Spain) have been carried out since 2014. One of the measures to ensure the success of this program is to examine the ...effects that diseases may have on reintroduction. Since diseases may be greatly located at certain sites because of the specific ecological requirements of the pathogens and/or vectors, reintroduced individuals may present a risk of infection once released. To determine which pathogens the reintroduced individuals may encounter, we performed a molecular and sero-epidemiological survey in reintroduced and wild-born lynxes. From 2015 to 2019, 69 Iberian lynxes (40 reintroduced and 29 wild-born) were sampled and screened against 10 viral, bacterial and piroplasmid agents. In parallel, 195 sympatric carnivores from the families
,
,
,
and
were tested against current or past infections to six common canine/feline viruses. In the Iberian lynx, low contact rates of active infection were obtained for the feline leukemia provirus (FeLV: 1.5%; 1/67), feline parvovirus (FPV: 1.5%; 1/67) and
sp. (6.7%; 1/15). We also confirmed the emergence of Aujeszky's disease (suid herpesvirus-1) in this population (SuHV-1: 11.8%; 2/17). Evidence of previous exposure was detected for canine distemper virus (CDV: 5.8%; 3/52), feline coronavirus (1.9%; 1/52), FPV (7.7%; 1/13) and feline calicivirus (FCV: 5.3%; 1/19). From 25 recovered lynx carcasses, we could confirm infectious etiology involvement in the death of four individuals (SuHV-1 in two individuals, coinfection of
spp. and
in one lynx and a
myositis in another lynx). We confirmed the circulation of CDV, FPV, FeLV, FCV and the feline immunodeficiency virus within the sympatric carnivore community. Due to the low contact rate of infectious agents in such a small, endangered population, we recommend continuing a disease surveillance program to determine the prognostic factors of survival, understand the role that disease may play during the reintroduction and anticipate disease outbreaks that may pose a risk for the entire reintroduced population.
Benign juvenile idiopathic epilepsy has been described in humans but rarely in animals. The objectives of the study were to describe the clinical signs, clinical data, imaging findings, genetic ...examinations, treatment, long-term outcome and prognosis in Iberian lynx with juvenile epilepsy. Medical records, video recordings and diagnostic data from 2005 to 2019 were reviewed.
Twenty lynx cubs with early onset of epileptic seizures (ES) from the conservation program were included. The average age at seizure onset was 75 days. Isolated and cluster ES were recorded. Focal ES, focal ES evolving into generalized ES with a stereotypical pattern and generalized ES were observed. All the cubs were normal between episodes, had a normal neurological examination and unremarkable investigations. Phenobarbital was used as a first line antiepileptic drug (AED). ES halted 10 days (0-34) after starting treatment in eight out of twenty cubs (40%). Treatment was discontinued in this group after a mean of 578 days and no further ES were reported (mean follow-up longer than 5 years). Eleven animals (55%) continued on AED treatment for a mean of 1306 days (70-3466). An adult-onset was observed for one lynx (5%). Polytherapy was necessary in seven lynxes (35%). The inheritance pattern observed was compatible with an autosomal recessive condition. Based on this assumption, mating between two identified carriers has been avoided since 2012, which may have contributed to the subsequent decrease in prevalence, with no further cases detected in 2018 and 2019.
Lynx pardinus may have an early onset self-limiting ES syndrome characteristic of benign juvenile idiopathic epilepsy. Information obtained from this study strongly suggests a genetic basis for the here presented epilepsy.
The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) is considered the most endangered felid species in the world. In order to save this species, the Spanish authorities implemented a captive breeding program recruiting ...lynxes from the wild. In this context, a retrospective survey on prevalence of selected feline pathogens in free-ranging lynxes was initiated.
We systematically analyzed the prevalence and importance of seven viral, one protozoan (Cytauxzoon felis), and several bacterial (e.g., hemotropic mycoplasma) infections in 77 of approximately 200 remaining free-ranging Iberian lynxes of the Doñana and Sierra Morena areas, in Southern Spain, between 2003 and 2007. With the exception of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), evidence of infection by all tested feline pathogens was found in Iberian lynxes. Fourteen lynxes were feline leukemia virus (FeLV) provirus-positive; eleven of these were antigenemic (FeLV p27 positive). All 14 animals tested negative for other viral infections. During a six-month period in 2007, six of the provirus-positive antigenemic lynxes died. Infection with FeLV but not with other infectious agents was associated with mortality (p<0.001). Sequencing of the FeLV surface glycoprotein gene revealed a common origin for ten of the eleven samples. The ten sequences were closely related to FeLV-A/61E, originally isolated from cats in the USA. Endogenous FeLV sequences were not detected.
It was concluded that the FeLV infection most likely originated from domestic cats invading the lynx's habitats. Data available regarding the time frame, co-infections, and outcome of FeLV-infections suggest that, in contrast to the domestic cat, the FeLV strain affecting the lynxes in 2007 is highly virulent to this species. Our data argue strongly for vaccination of lynxes and domestic cats in and around lynx's habitats in order to prevent further spread of the virus as well as reduction the domestic cat population if the lynx population is to be maintained.
A 6-month-old female Iberian lynx (
Lynx pardinus
) cub that was severely affected by mange died in September 2016 in the Montes de Toledo (Spain) with crusts and fissures on its face, outer ears, ...nipples and footpads. The body condition of the cub was very poor, and it also had a mandibular abscess and a severely ankylosed luxation on its left knee. After confirming that the origin of the deceased cub’s dermal lesions was
Sarcoptes scabiei
, the subsequent search for ectoparasites and a comparison of histopathological and immunohistochemical findings in all sympatric lynxes handled (
n
= 30) and submitted for necropsy (
n
= 4) during 2016 and 2017 revealed the presence of
S. scabiei
mites and/or milder mange compatible lesions in five members of her family group, which was treated against mange together with two exposed contiguous family groups. An ELISA developed by the authors showed the presence of antibodies against
S. scabiei
in the deceased female cub and one brother. The presence of concomitant immunosuppressive factors in the dead female cub and the results obtained for the other sympatric lynxes studied since 2016 suggest that
S. scabiei
had a limited effect on immune-competent Iberian lynxes in the local population of the Montes de Toledo. However, a different evolution and relevance of sarcoptic mange in different populations—or even in the same one in the presence of immunosuppressive factors—cannot be ruled out, thus confirming the need for further research in order to attain a complete comprehension of the epidemiology and the real threat that this ectoparasitic disease may imply for
L. pardinus.
The karst fissures known as “ventarole”, located in the Salentine Peninsula (southernmost part of Apulia, Italy), were first studied by Mirigliano in 1941. These fissures are generally filled with ...reddish sediments or “terre rosse” in the lower part, and with brownish sediments or “terre brune” in the upper one. Both deposits are particularly rich in vertebrate remains. The mammal assemblages collected within the “terre rosse” from Melpignano and San Sidero are chronologically referred to the early Late Pleistocene (MIS 5), whereas those from the “terre brune” are referred to the Late Pleistocene – Early Holocene (MIS 2/1) transition. These ages were estimated from correlation with the similarly reddish and brownish sediments cropping out in Grotta Romanelli and with other Apulian local faunal assemblages. However, no detailed textural or mineralogical characterization has been carried out on the “ventarole” deposits. Moreover, the presence of several species led to a hypothes of persistence of Middle Pleistocene taxa during the Late Pleistocene in Apulia. In addition, the fauna of Melpignano was proposed as a Faunal Unit of the late Aurelian Land Mammal Age. In the last two decades, a team from the Department of Earth Sciences of Sapienza University of Rome have carried out fieldwork in this fossiliferous area. The rich fossil sample recovered is here presented, coupled with a reassessment of the remains collected since the 1900s. The updated faunal lists of Melpignano and San Sidero include several new species here identified for the first time, in particular Dama clactoniana, Equus mosbachensis and Lynx pardinus. New biochronological and paleoenvironmental data for southern Italy are presented, deriving from the analyses of the mammal remains from Melpignano and San Sidero and their comparison with those from other Middle-Late Pleistocene Apulian sites. Finally, textural and mineralogical analyses performed on several “ventarole” samples allow for a better description of the characteristics of the “terre rosse” and “terre brune”.
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