The word “glia” was coined in the mid‐19th century and defined as “the nerve glue”. For decades, it was assumed to be a uniform matrix, until cell theorists raised the “neuron doctrine” which ...stipulated that nervous tissue was composed of individual cells. The term “astrocytes” was introduced in the late 19th century as a synonym for glial cells, but it was Santiago Ramón y Cajal who defined a “third element” distinct from glial cells (astrocytes) and neurons. It was not until 1919 when Pío del Río‐Hortega, an alumnus of the Cajal School, introduced the modern terms we use today, and thoroughly described both “oligodendrocytes” and “microglia” to clearly distinguish them from astrocytes. In a series of four papers published that year in Spanish, Río‐Hortega described the distribution and morphological phenotype of microglia. He also noted that these cells were the origin of the rod cells described earlier in pathologic tissue, and recognized that resting microglia transformed into an ameboid phenotype in different types of brain diseases and pathologies. He also noted the mesodermal origin of these cells and recognized their phagocytic capacity. We here provide the first English translation of these landmark series of papers, which paved the way for modern glial research. To heighten the value and accessibility of these classic papers and their original figures, an introduction to this critical period of neuroscience is provided, along with unpublished photographs. By adding comments to the translated text, we provide sufficient context so that contemporary scientists may fully appreciate it. GLIA 2016;64:1801–1840
Main Points
An annotated English translation of the 1919 Pio del Río‐Hortega papers is provided.
These papers contain the first modern definitions of the three types of CNS glial cells – microglia, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes.
Microglia are described in the normal and pathologic brain.
In this article, the authors present the results from a structured review of the literature, identifying and analyzing the most quoted and dominant definitions of social media (SM) and alternative ...terms that were used between 1994 and 2019 to identify their major applications. Similarities and differences in the definitions are highlighted to provide guidelines for researchers and managers who use results from previous research to further study SM or to find practical applications. In other words, when reading an article about SM, it is essential to understand how the researchers defined SM and how results from articles that use different definitions can be compared. This article is intended to act as a guideline for readers of those articles.
Der am 08.12.23 veröffentlichte Text „Das Spannungsverhältnis zwischen Staatsräson und Grundrechten“ von anonymer Autor*in hätte ein konstruktiver Beitrag zu einer wichtigen Debatte um den Begriff ...des Antisemitismus sein können. Leider erschien der Beitrag unter dem Pseudonym Clara Neumann und begründet das mit einer im „... Text geschilderten Diskursverengung im Zusammenhang mit der durch das WissZeitVG bedingten akademischen Berufsunsicherheit ...“. Der Text bietet, anders als der Titel und die Einleitung Anlass geben zu glauben, keinen nuancierten Beitrag zur Debatte um die Definition von Antisemitismus, insbesondere israelbezogenem Antisemitismus. Vielmehr zieht er Verbindungen zwischen unterschiedlichsten jüngsten Gegebenheiten, von Demonstrationsverboten über Rücktritte und Absagen von Preisverleihungen, größtenteils ohne diese auf die für den Text zentrale IHRA-Definition zurückführen zu können.
Infection-related movement disorders (IRMD) present a complex diagnostic challenge due to the broad phenotypic spectrum, the variety of possible infectious aetiologies, and the complicated underlying ...mechanisms. Yet, a comprehensive framework for classifying IRMD is lacking.
An international consensus panel under the directives of the Movement Disorders Society Infection-Related Movement Disorders Study Group developed a comprehensive definition and a consensus classification system. Case scenarios were used for validation.
A definition for IRMD and a two-axis-based classification system consisting of six descriptors are proposed, intended as tools for researchers and clinicians. Collected information on clinical characteristics, investigational findings, the infectious organism and presumed pathogenesis facilitate the evaluation of diagnostic certainty.
The proposed framework will serve for optimised diagnostic algorithms, systematic aggregation of informative datasets across studies, and ultimately improved care and outcome of patients with IRMDs.
•Comprehensive definition of infection-related movement disorders (IRMDs) to establish a framework for understanding this group.•Two-axis classification for systematic categorization based on clinical, investigational, infectious, and pathogenic factors.•Promotes consistent terminology, reporting standards to enable large-scale collaborative research.•Framework to evaluate diagnostic certainty of association between infections and movement disorders.•Aims to optimize diagnostic algorithms, elucidate disease mechanisms, and enhance clinical care.
•A new definition of Augmented Reality Marketing.•Augmented Reality Marketing is strategic and interdisciplinary, and not limited to promotional activities or consumers as target audiences.•BICK FOUR ...framework delineates four groups of AR Marketing objectives: Branding, Inspiring, Convincing and Keeping.•A survey among 127 managers provides insights into current practices and challenges.•Discussion of contemporary definitions of AR, VR (Virtual Reality), and XR.•Introduction of fundamental premises to further the AR Marketing discipline.
Augmented Reality (AR) has received increased attention over the last years, both from managers and scholars alike. Various studies in the marketing discipline have tackled fragmented aspects of AR, such as its impact on sales or brands. Yet, a holistic approach to AR remains scarce. Therefore, the authors define “Augmented Reality Marketing” as a novel, strategic, and potentially disruptive subdiscipline in marketing. In conjunction, they discuss a nuanced customer journey model for AR Marketing strategy and propose the BICK FOUR framework (branding, inspiring, convincing, and keeping) as a tool to organize corresponding goals. Another contribution is the introduction of several fundamental differences between AR Marketing and traditional digital marketing concepts, such as redefining the reality concept (reduced reality, normal reality, and augmented reality in a metaverse context). Insights from 127 managers further enhance the current and future practices of AR Marketing. Finally, a discussion of ethical and legal considerations completes the assessment.
Understanding how splicing events are coordinated across numerous introns in metazoan RNA transcripts requires quantitative analyses of transient RNA processing events in living cells. We developed ...nanopore analysis of co-transcriptional processing (nano-COP), in which nascent RNAs are directly sequenced through nanopores, exposing the dynamics and patterns of RNA splicing without biases introduced by amplification. Long nano-COP reads reveal that, in human and Drosophila cells, splicing occurs after RNA polymerase II transcribes several kilobases of pre-mRNA, suggesting that metazoan splicing transpires distally from the transcription machinery. Inhibition of the branch-site recognition complex SF3B rapidly diminished global co-transcriptional splicing. We found that splicing order does not strictly follow the order of transcription and is associated with cis-acting elements, alternative splicing, and RNA-binding factors. Further, neighboring introns in human cells tend to be spliced concurrently, implying that splicing of these introns occurs cooperatively. Thus, nano-COP unveils the organizational complexity of RNA processing.
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•Direct RNA sequencing exposes splicing dynamics without biases from amplification•Splicing occurs after RNA Pol II transcribes kilobases past introns in metazoans•Introns are frequently removed in a defined order that does not follow transcription•Splicing in humans is coordinated across proximal introns
Drexler et al. expose the nascent transcriptome through nanopore analysis of co-transcriptional processing (nano-COP). Long nascent RNAs are directly sequenced through nanopores to provide new insights into the cis- and trans-acting control of splicing order and define the physical proximity between transcription and splicing in metazoans. Furthermore, nano-COP reveals a tendency for proximal introns to have coordinated splicing patterns in human cells.
The current International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) definition of pain as "An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or ...described in terms of such damage" was recommended by the Subcommittee on Taxonomy and adopted by the IASP Council in 1979. This definition has become accepted widely by health care professionals and researchers in the pain field and adopted by several professional, governmental, and nongovernmental organizations, including the World Health Organization. In recent years, some in the field have reasoned that advances in our understanding of pain warrant a reevaluation of the definition and have proposed modifications. Therefore, in 2018, the IASP formed a 14-member, multinational Presidential Task Force comprising individuals with broad expertise in clinical and basic science related to pain, to evaluate the current definition and accompanying note and recommend whether they should be retained or changed. This review provides a synopsis of the critical concepts, the analysis of comments from the IASP membership and public, and the committee's final recommendations for revisions to the definition and notes, which were discussed over a 2-year period. The task force ultimately recommended that the definition of pain be revised to "An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with, or resembling that associated with, actual or potential tissue damage," and that the accompanying notes be updated to a bulleted list that included the etymology. The revised definition and notes were unanimously accepted by the IASP Council early this year.
Hardware accelerators outperform CPUs in terms of performance by parallelizing the algorithm architecture and using the device's programmable resources. FPGA is a type of hardware accelerator that ...excels not only in performance but also in energy efficiency. So, it provides a suitable platform for implementing complicated fractional-order systems. This paper proposes a novel phase-based optimization method to implement fractional operators using FIR and IIR filters. We also compare five fractional operator implementation methods on FPGA regarding resource utilization, execution time, power, and accuracy. These methods and the proposed one are evaluated in terms of power consumption, delay, and resources to assist the designer in determining the most suitable implementation method for the given application. The proposed method has a lower phase error of <inline-formula> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">14.7\%</tex-math> </inline-formula> in the case of derivative operation and a lower phase error of <inline-formula> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">18.83\%</tex-math> </inline-formula> in the case of integration compared to the literature. In addition, the proposed methods decreased the consumed power and area by more than three times compared to the fixed-window GL fractional operator. The proposed approach implements Heaviside's inductor-terminated lossy line. In addition, it is employed as an edge detection kernel to demonstrate its effectiveness in image processing applications.
Still relevant after 19 years, the FAO/WHO definition of probiotics can be translated into four simple and pragmatic criteria allowing one to conclude if specific strains of microorganisms qualify as ...a probiotic for use in foods and dietary supplements. Probiotic strains must be (i) sufficiently characterized; (ii) safe for the intended use; (iii) supported by at least one positive human clinical trial conducted according to generally accepted scientific standards or as per recommendations and provisions of local/national authorities when applicable; and (iv) alive in the product at an efficacious dose throughout shelf life. We provide clarity and detail how each of these four criteria can be assessed. The wide adoption of these criteria is necessary to ensure the proper use of the word probiotic in scientific publications, on product labels, and in communications with regulators and the general public.
We aim to combine asteroseismology, spectroscopy, and evolutionary models to establish a comprehensive picture of the evolution of Galactic blue supergiant stars (BSG). To start such an ...investigation, we selected three BSG candidates for our analysis: HD 42087 (PU Gem), HD 52089 (ϵ CMa), and HD 58350 (η CMa). These stars show pulsations and were suspected to be in an evolutionary stage either preceding or succeding the red supergiant (RSG) stage. For our analysis, we utilized the 2-min cadence TESS data to study the photometric variability, and we obtained new spectroscopic observations at the CASLEO observatory. We used non-LTE radiative transfer models calculated with CMFGEN to derive their stellar and wind parameters. For the fitting procedure, we included CMFGEN models in the iterative spectral analysis pipeline XTgrid to determine their CNO abundances. The spectral modeling was limited to changing only the effective temperature, surface gravity, CNO abundances, and mass-loss rates. Finally, we compared the derived metal abundances with prediction from Geneva stellar evolution models. The frequency spectra of all three stars show stochastic oscillations and indications of one nonradial strange mode, fsub.r= 0.09321 dsup.−1 in HD 42087 and a rotational splitting centred in fsub.2= 0.36366 dsup.−1 in HD 52089. We conclude that the rather short sectoral observing windows of TESS prevent establishing a reliable mode identification of low frequencies connected to mass-loss variabilities. The spectral analysis confirmed gradual changes in the mass-loss rates, and the derived CNO abundances comply with the values reported in the literature. We were able to achieve a quantitative match with stellar evolution models for the stellar masses and luminosities. However, the spectroscopic surface abundances turned out to be inconsistent with the theoretical predictions. The stars show N enrichment, typical for CNO cycle processed material, but the abundance ratios did not reflect the associated levels of C and O depletion. We found HD 42087 to be the most consistent with a pre-RSG evolutionary stage, HD 58350 is most likely in a post-RSG evolution and HD 52089 shows stellar parameters compatible with a star at the TAMS.
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