Kratka povijest hrane Jandrić-Balen, Marica; Balen, Ivica
Studia lexicographica,
12/2023, Volume:
17, Issue:
33
Journal Article
Peer reviewed
Open access
Kratak pregled povijesti hrane treba nas podsjetiti kako se hrana mijenjala kroz povijest, od sasvim prirodnih namirnica, preko početaka kuhanja hrane, do početaka njezine proizvodnje. Početak ...proizvodnje hrane – agrarna revolucija – smatra se najvažnijim iskorakom u razvoju čovječanstva i temelj je suvremene civilizacije. No kuda nas sve to vodi? Pesimisti bi rekli stvaranju sve težih uvjeta za opstanak čovjeka na našem planetu, a optimisti da još uvijek ima nade za održivi razvoj i stvaranje boljih uvjeta, uz promjenu energetske politike i stvaranje novih tehnologija. Utjecaj fenotipa na genotip kroz našu evoluciju upućuje na to da vjerojatno najbolje toleriramo onu hranu koju smo kroz milijune godina najduže i najviše konzumirali. To se odnosi i na »samo« 150 000 godina razvoja Homo sapiensa. Prema onome što danas znamo, najdulje smo konzumirali potpuno prirodnu hranu, bez kuhanja i pripreme, a nakon početka kuhanja hrane, prije 300 000 godina, i dalje smo konzumirali uglavnom voće i povrće, gljive te meso manjih životinja, riba i školjki. Stoga bi takva prehrana trebala biti temelj današnje prehrane. To ne znači da ne treba konzumirati sve ono što danas imamo, već da to možemo konzumirati povremeno, kao nadogradnju temeljnih namirnica. U članku je opisano dvanaest ključnih točaka, koje su mijenjale vrste, količine i kvalitetu hrane, što je sve djelovalo na broj stanovništva, kao i na njegov izgled i zdravlje. Redom su opisane prirodne namirnice, početci kuhanja hrane, zatim i početci proizvodnje hrane, što je u prehranu na velika vrata uvelo razne vrste žitarica i nova pića, primjerice pivo i vino, uz otkriće začina, promjene hrane u novom vijeku nakon otkrića Amerike (1492) i plovnoga puta za Indiju. To je značilo veliku razmjenu namirnica po cijelom svijetu, izrazito povećanu proizvodnju šećera i bijeloga brašna, pojavu duhana, žestokih pića, kave i čaja te nove načine konzerviranja hrane. Kasnije, nakon industrijske revolucije, dolazi do razvoja mehanizacije u poljoprivredi, otkrića umjetnih gnojiva (Haber-Boschov proces), razvoja pesticida, brojnih novih sorti križanih žitarica, uvođenje hormona i antibiotika u poljoprivrednu proizvodnju i pojavu genetski modificirane hrane. Predviđamo i da će iduća važna stepenica biti proizvodnja mesa kao kulture tkiva jer današnjim tehnologijama možemo proizvesti sva tkiva pa i tkiva životinja kojih više nema, čime bi se postupno smanjivalo ubijanje domaćih i divljih životinja za potrebe prehrane. Cilj je ovakva kratka pregleda povijesti hrane podsjetiti na to kako se naša hrana brzo i temeljito mijenja, kao i njezina količina, kvaliteta i okusi.
A brief overview of the history of food is intended to remind us of how food has changed throughout history, from entirely natural ingredients to the beginnings of food production. The beginning of food production, known as the agricultural revolution, is considered the most significant development in human history and the foundation of modern civilisation. But where does all of this lead us? Pessimists might say it leads to increasingly challenging conditions for human survival on our planet, while optimists believe there is still hope for sustainable development and better conditions, through changes in energy policies and the development of new technologies. The influence of phenotype on genotype throughout our evolution suggests that we probably tolerate best the foods we have consumed the longest and most throughout millions of years. This also applies to the ‘mere’ 150,000 years of Homo sapiens’ development. According to what we know today, we have consumed entirely natural food for the longest time, without cooking and preparation, and we began cooking food 300,000 years ago, we continued to consume primarily fruits and vegetables, mushrooms, and the meat of smaller animals, fish, and shellfish. Therefore, such a diet should be the basis of nutrition today. This does not mean that we should not consume all the foods available today, but that we can consume them occasionally as supplements to basic foods. The article describes twelve key points that have changed the types, quantities, and quality of food, all of which have had an impact on the population as well as its appearance and health. It sequentially describes natural foods, the beginnings of cooking food, and the beginnings of food production, which introduced various types of grains and new beverages, such as beer and wine, along with the discovery of spices, and changes in food in the modern era after the discovery of America (1492) and the sea route to India. This meant a significant exchange of food around the world, a substantial increase in sugar and white flour production, the emergence of tobacco, strong spirits, coffee, and tea as well as new methods of food preservation. Later, after the industrial revolution, there was mechanisation in agriculture, the discovery of artificial fertilisers (Haber-Bosch process), the development of pesticides, numerous new varieties of hybrid grains, the introduction of hormones and antibiotics into agricultural production, and the emergence of genetically modified foods. We also anticipate that the next important step will be the production of cultured tissue meat, as today’s technologies allow us to produce all tissues, even those of animals that no longer exist, gradually reducing the need to slaughter domestic and wild animals for food. The goal of this short history of food is to remind us of how our food changes rapidly and thoroughly, as do its quantity, quality, and flavours.
Svetovna popotnica in pisateljica Alma Maksimiliana Karlin (1889–1950) je bila vneta zbiralka razglednic. Prispevek analizira 12 razglednic, ki jih je prinesla s Tajvana, ki ga je obiskala med ...decembrom 1923 in januarjem 1924. Čeprav predstavljajo le drobec njene bogate zbirke razglednic s celega sveta, izstopajo po enovitosti svoje tematike. Prav vse namreč prikazujejo pripadnike tajvanskih staroselskih ljudstev.
Pričujoči prispevek skuša iz kontekstov nastanka in rabe omenjenih razglednic ugotoviti, kako so se oblikovale podobe tajvanskih staroselcev v očeh njihove zbirateljice. S podrobnejšo analizo motivov in napisov na razglednicah podobe najprej identificira kot del etnografskega fotografskega gradiva, ki so ga zbrali japonski raziskovalci na Tajvanu, nato pa razglednice umesti v družbeno-politične okoliščine japonske kolonizacije, zlasti v pogosto soodvisna, občasno pa tudi konfliktna razmerja med antropološko oz. etnološko vedo ter kolonialnim upravnim aparatom. Članek nato obravnava poglede Alme Karlin na tajvanske staroselce tako, da razglednice postavi ob bok njenemu potopisnemu pisanju, iz katerega je mogoče razbrati pomemben vpliv japonske kolonialne imaginacije. Kljub lastnim pripombam o velikih družbenih in kulturnih spremembah v tajvanskih staroselskih družbah, ji kot osrednja prizma, skozi katero jih opazuje in opisuje, služijo eksotične in domnevno brezčasne prakse, kot sta lov na glave in tetoviranje. Zanimanja in okusi Alme Karlin, kot jih lahko razberemo z njenih tajvanskih razglednic, v ničemer ne odstopajo od njenih sodobnikov in so tesno povezane s širšimi političnimi in družbenimi razmerami ter estetskimi slogi časa, v katerem je potovala.
U svakodnevnom lovnom gospodarenju pravilna procjena udaljenosti pojedine divljači, posebice vrsta krupne divljači, od odlučujućeg je značenja kod izvršavanja odstrela. Većina pušaka užljebljene ...cijevi koja se danas koristi za odstrel opremljena je optičkim nišanima koji se u pravilu upucavaju na 100 – 150 m. Zavisno o kalibru, visini optičkog nišana, težini zrna metka, udaljenosti i kutu pod kojim se gađa, kao i još nekim manje važnim parametrima ovisi uspješnost samog odstrela, odnosno točnost pogotka. Često puta razlog promašaja kod pokušaja odstrela treba tražiti upravo u pogrešno procijenjenoj udaljnosti divljači koja se cilja. U radu je analiziran utjecaj različitih čimbenika na pogreške kod procjene udaljenosti cilja. Procjena udaljenosti objekata u prirodi istraživana je na uzorku od 40 lovaca različite životne dobi, lovačkog staža i obrazovanja. Istraživanje je provedeno u reljefno tri tipa staništa, nizinskom (do 200 m.n.v.), brdskom (200 – 800 m.n.v.) i gorskom dijelu (preko 800 m.n.v.). Kako bi se otklonila pristranost svaki lovac je testiran na deset različito udaljenih objekata. Kontrolna mjerenja izvršena su laserskim daljinomjerom. Dobiveni rezultati pokazuju kako je pogreška procjene udaljenosti samo donekle povezana s lovačkim iskustvom, te je u većoj mjeri ovisna o životnoj dobi. Najviše griješe najmlađi i najstariji lovci, dok je pogreška najmanja kod lovaca životne dobi 40 – 60 god. Gledano lovački staž najviše su griješili lovci sa lovačkim stažom 10 – 20 god. Analizom stupnja obrazovanja i pogrešaka procjene udaljenosti ustanovljeno je kako su najmanje pogreške zabilježene kod lovaca visokog obrazovanja. Svi lovci prosječno procjenjuju manju udaljenost od stvarno izmjerene. Porastom udaljenosti povećava se i pogreška procjenjene udaljenosti.
Depth perception is the ability to see thre dimensional volume and special layout of objects in relation to one another as well as to the observer himself. This depth perception in humans is achieved by different signs in nature where the eyes or the brain relies on certain regularities in the environment (Watson & Enss 2012). Knowing the size of the object from previous experience our brain can calculate distance based on the size of the object on the retina (Abel 2014). For proper depth perception it is necessary that both eyes focus the object synchronously. This way, observing the object simultaneously from two different angles a plastic image of the object is create in the brain (Tran and ass., 2010), and all other information on the observed object is
being given (Greene & Oliva 2009; Oliva & Schyns 2000; Rousselet i sur., 2005; Sanocki 2003). In everyday hunting management proper assessment of distance of wild game, especially of big game species, is of crucial significance in executing cull. Most rifles that are now used for cull are equipped with optical sights that are generally calibrated at 100 – 150 meters. Depending on the calibre, height of the optics, bullet weight, distance and angle from which you shoot, as well as some other less important parameters, depends the success of the cull itself and punctuality of the shot.Often is the case that the reason for missing in cull attempts should be looked for in the wrong assessment of distance of wild game. Distance assessment of objects in nature has been researched on the sample of 40 hunters of different age groups, hunting experience and education. Research has been conducted in three types of habitat, lowland (up to 200 a.s.l.), highland (200 – 800 a.s.l.) and mountain (over 800 a.s.l.).To eliminate biases each hunter has been tested in ten differently distanced objects. Measurement control has been conducted with laser telemeter. Conducted research was supposed to determine that the bias distance assessment depends on different factors. As expected, by increasing the distance of the object for which distance was assessed, the distance assessment error also increased. It was determined that age has influence on distance assessment and assessment error that occurs. In youngest and oldest hunters the biggest average error has been noticed, while somewhat smaller errors have been noticed in hunters in the age group of 40 to 60. It can be therefore assumed that the errors in the group of younger hunters is the result of insufficient experience, while in the group of hunters above 60 years of age this is the result of reduced functionality. Hunters that are older than 70 have shown on average smaller error than the ones in age category 60 – 70 years of age, however considering that it is a small sample and dissipation is far bigger this part of the sample should not be considered relevant. This situation does not correspond to the errors that were noticed in analysing errors in correlation with hunting experience, especially when you take into account that hunting experience increases proportionally with age. Most errors were done by hunters with hunting experience between 10 and 20 years. Hunters that were hunting for less than ten years made less mistakes on average and therefore these results are also in favour of the thesis that for distance assesment hunting experience is less important, and that sight functionality and life age are crucial. Analysis of level of education show that the hunters with higher education made less errors. All hunters on average estimate smaller distance that the measured one. By increasing the distance the error in distance estimation is also increased.
Provider: - Institution: - Data provided by Europeana Collections- Moj stari oče Anton Agrež (prvi z leve) v družbi celjske »zelene bratovščine«. V ustnem izročilu stare mame Ivane Agrež so mi ostali ...najbolj v spominu naslednji lovci: hotelir Bernardi (z Gosposke ulice), medičar in lectar Kraupner (z Glavnega trga), Železnik (sovaščan starega očeta s Skalne kleti), ter Knez in Debenjak. Med lovci sta na fotografiji dva oficirja v uniformi Kraljevine SHS; v ozadju pa je eden izmed lovcev z značilnim srbskim pokrivalom šubaro. Devet uplenjenih divjih zajcev pa kaže na to, da je bilo v tistih časih v gozdovih zadosti divjadi. Spomini Lov je bil v prvi polovici 20. stoletja predvsem privilegij bogatejših celjskih meščanov. Kljub temu, da je moj stari oče bil le trgovec z lastno stojnico na Glavnem trgu, so ga le-ti sprejeli medse in spoštovali. Na lov je odhajal z nahrbtnikom, ki je v svoji notranjosti skrival skromno malico v nasprotju bogati lovci, ki so razumljivo, nosili s sabo poln nahrbtnik dobrot. Seveda pa so »zeleni bratje« kdaj pa kdaj preveč »pogledali« v kozarec, zato je stari oče velikokrat prišel domov v rož’cah in ob tem zbudil otroke, pa naj je bila ura polnoči ali dve zjutraj, ko so morali kleče moliti in peti. Ko je opazil, da se ga bojijo, se je razjokal. Ob preko mere popitem vinu so se pojavile tudi posledice travm prve svetovne vojne, ki jo je preživel na soški fronti kot avstro-ogrski vojak 87., celjskega pešpolka. Tudi njegova prerana smrt v 49. letu starosti je posledica težkih in nečloveških razmer na fronti. Na pogreb starega očeta je prišlo veliko ljudi, lovci pa so mu za zadnji lovski pozdrav izstrelili častno salvo.Prispeval: Rudi Škedelj - All metadata published by Europeana are available free of restriction under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. However, Europeana requests that you actively acknowledge and give attribution to all metadata sources including Europeana
Provider: - Institution: - Data provided by Europeana Collections- Original language summary:
Myslivci a jejich hon na zajíce na Mikulovsku.- Extended description:
Účastníme se honu na zajíce ...nedaleko Mikulova. Kdysi jich tady bylo tolik, že se dalo za den zastřelit I víc jak tisíc kusů, dneska je to už jen stovka zajíců. Přesto jsou myslivci spokojeni, hon se vydařil a všichni se vrátili bez zranění. Mladý kluk, který jim pomáhá, teprve sbírá zkušenosti, ale i on chce jít jednou na svůj lov.
We participate in the hunt for hares near Mikulov. Once their population here was so numerous that more then thousand pieces of hare could have been shot a day, today it is only a hundred hares. Nevertheless, these hunters are satisfied, the hunt was successful and all of them returned unharmed. A young boy who helps them only collects experience but he also wants to go for his hunt one day.- Information:
Díl ze seriálu "Jak se žije", který přibližuje život nejrůznějších společenských či profesních skupin.
Excerpt of one part of the series " What is the life like for..." which shows life of different social or professional groups.- Hunters and their hunt for hares in the Mikulov region.- All metadata published by Europeana are available free of restriction under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. However, Europeana requests that you actively acknowledge and give attribution to all metadata sources including Europeana
Provider: - Institution: - Data provided by Europeana Collections- Moj stari oče Anton Agrež, trgovec, z lastno stojnico na Glavnem trgu v Celju, je bil med drugim tudi član celjske »zelene ...bratovščine«. V času prve svetovne vojne je bil na fronti kot pripadnik 87. cesarskega in kraljevskega pešpolka ter poddesetnik v M. g. Abt. (Maschinengewehr Abteilung- hitrostrelni oddelek). Zagotovo je bila njegova prerana smrt v 49. letu starosti predvsem posledica težkih in nečloveških razmer na fronti.Ob njegovi smrti pred 80. leti je bil v reviji Lovec objavljen naslednji nekrolog: »Dne 10. februarja 1939 je umrl Anton Agrež, posestnik in branjevec v Zavodni pri Celju (danes Skalna klet), star komaj 49 let. Po njem ne žaluje le zvesta in dobra žena ter pet nepreskrbljenih otrok, ampak celokupno naše članstvo, ki ga bo ohranilo v lepem spominu. Kako priljubljen je bil pokojni, je pokazal njegov pogreb dne 12. februarja, katerega se je udeležila tudi četa lovcev s puškami. Ob odprtem grobu se je od njega poslovil društveni predsednik g. direktor Mravljak. Za slovo mu je zapel lovski rog, v zadnji pozdrav pa so mu odjeknile lovske puške. Bodi mu zemljica lahka!« Vir: Lovec, let. 26, leto 1939, str. 161Prispeval: Rudi Škedelj - All metadata published by Europeana are available free of restriction under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. However, Europeana requests that you actively acknowledge and give attribution to all metadata sources including Europeana
Provider: - Institution: - Data provided by Europeana Collections- Da je že v šestdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja divjad kmetom povzročala veliko škode so poročali tudi v lokalnem časopisu Snežnik. ...Na fotografiji, ki jo hranim je na zadnji strani zapisano: »Na zboru volivcev dne 14.2.1963 v vasi Starod so iznesli občani, da jim divji prašiči prizadevajo veliko škode. Lovske družine pa to škodo le delno, oziroma v nezadostni meri povrnejo. Da pa se nekateri lovci tudi resno zanimajo kako odstraniti prekomerno škodo, nam zgovorno priča objavljena slika.«Skupina lovcev se ponosno nastavlja objektivu skupaj s plenom- srnjakom in divjim prašičem. Lovci so očitno bili že leta 1963, ko je fotografija nastala, dodobra opremljeni. Na njej so vidni tipični lovski klobuki, daljnogled in seveda človekov, sploh pa lovčev, najboljši prijatelj- pes. Le puške so se fotografu skrile. Kdo je na fotografiji in v kateri bistriški lovski družini so se veselili uspešnega lova, pa moramo še ugotoviti. Le kaj bi danes dejal avtor zapisa, ko divjad še vedno povzroča veliko škode, odškodnine kmetom pa so tudi enake kot takrat.- All metadata published by Europeana are available free of restriction under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. However, Europeana requests that you actively acknowledge and give attribution to all metadata sources including Europeana
Provider: - Institution: - Data provided by Europeana Collections- Na fotografiji so člani družine Bon, preden so se odpravili na lov. - All metadata published by Europeana are available free of ...restriction under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. However, Europeana requests that you actively acknowledge and give attribution to all metadata sources including Europeana
Provider: - Institution: - Data provided by Europeana Collections- Poziranje z lovci po uspešnem lovu na divjega prašiča, ki je že pripravljen na transport z Tomosovima mopedoma v Gornjem Gradu ...spomladi 1966. Od leve proti desni: g. Dežman, neznan, Jure Šutej, Matjaž Tratnik, Gorazd Tratnik, Jože Tratnik, Tone Zagožen, g. Fricelj. Skeniran diapozitiv, avtor Zoran Tratnik- All metadata published by Europeana are available free of restriction under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. However, Europeana requests that you actively acknowledge and give attribution to all metadata sources including Europeana
Provider: - Institution: - Data provided by Europeana Collections- Toni Lovarsič in Alois Pann, člana LD Dobrna, sta 18. junija 1960 v hribovju Kozjaka uplenila Belega srnjaka, žival brez kožnega ...pigmenta in je zato bel. Imenujemo jih tudi albini. Več o albinizmu …- All metadata published by Europeana are available free of restriction under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. However, Europeana requests that you actively acknowledge and give attribution to all metadata sources including Europeana
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