Interest in the metaphysics and logic of possible worlds goes back at least as far as Aristotle, but few books address the history of these important concepts. This volume offers new essays on the ...theories about the logical modalities (necessity and possibility) held by leading philosophers from Aristotle in ancient Greece to Rudolf Carnap in the twentieth century. The story begins with an illuminating discussion of Aristotle's views on the connection between logic and metaphysics, continues through the Stoic and mediaeval (including Arabic) traditions, and then moves to the early modern period with particular attention to Locke and Leibniz. The views of Kant, Peirce, C. I. Lewis and Carnap complete the volume. Many of the essays illuminate the connection between the historical figures studied, and recent or current work in the philosophy of modality. The result is a rich and wide-ranging picture of the history of the logical modalities.
Single necessary (but not sufficient) conditions are critically important for business theory and practice. Without them, the outcomes cannot occur, and other conditions cannot compensate for this ...absence. Currently two analytical approaches are available for identifying single necessary conditions: Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA), which was recently developed, and fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA), which is a more established approach. FsQCA normally focuses on sufficient but not necessary configurations, but can also identify necessary but not sufficient conditions. This study uses NCA to analyze two examples of empirical datasets published in the Journal of Business Research that use fsQCA to identify single necessary conditions. A comparison of the results of NCA and fsQCA shows that NCA can identify more necessary conditions than fsQCA and can specify the level of the condition that is required for a given level of the outcome.
The essay examines the proper treament of (i) naming (ii) necessity. (A) It argues their mutual independence (B) provides a treatment of naming separately from any idea of “designation” (C) gives ...treatment of de re modality without any use of possible worlds, essences, concepts, rigid designators (D) it argues an ultimate asymmetry–naming/referring is a key real notion of semantics; necessity should not be the central idea in the metaphysics of nature.
•The necessity causal perspective plays a significant role in theory and practice.•It differs fundamentally from conventional sufficiency causal perspectives.•“If not X, then (typically) not Y” ...differs from “if X, then (probably) Y”.•NCA employs a deterministic or typicality perspective on necessity causality.•Business researchers increasingly embrace NCA in single and multimethod studies.
This article delves deeper into the causal perspective of Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA). In contrast to traditional probabilistic sufficiency approaches in quantitative social science research about what will happen on average in a group of cases, NCA is interested in what will not occur in almost every case if a necessary condition is absent. Rooted in David Hume's theory of causation NCA explores factors that act as ‘must-haves’ or bottlenecks for the outcome. Operating from this necessity perspective, NCA functions deterministically (without exceptions) or non-deterministically (allowing exceptions). NCA can enrich theories and models in social science research by identifying essential factors. The article contributes to the literature by precisely describing the necessity causal perspective that is used in NCA, and by explaining how this is different from causal perspectives that are commonly used in social science research.
Theoretical “necessary but not sufficient” statements are common in the organizational sciences. Traditional data analyses approaches (e.g., correlation or multiple regression) are not appropriate ...for testing or inducing such statements. This article proposes necessary condition analysis (NCA) as a general and straightforward methodology for identifying necessary conditions in data sets. The article presents the logic and methodology of necessary but not sufficient contributions of organizational determinants (e.g., events, characteristics, resources, efforts) to a desired outcome (e.g., good performance). A necessary determinant must be present for achieving an outcome, but its presence is not sufficient to obtain that outcome. Without the necessary condition, there is guaranteed failure, which cannot be compensated by other determinants of the outcome. This logic and its related methodology are fundamentally different from the traditional sufficiency-based logic and methodology. Practical recommendations and free software are offered to support researchers to apply NCA.
The central focus of this article is to provide a new “Love Argument” for the necessary truth of the Latin' model' of the doctrine of the Trinity—termed “Latin Trinitarianism”—from an a priori ...standpoint. This new argument, called the Agápēic Argument, will be formulated in light of the metaphysical notions of a “trope,” introduced by D. C. Williams, and “multiple location,” posited by Antony Eagle, and the ethical concept of agápē, proposed by Alexander Pruss. Doing this will provide a specific argument that provides strong grounds for affirming the necessary truth of the Trinity, without, however, being subject to the primary objections that have been often raised against the existing versions of the argument.
In this paper, we seek to introduce the concept of necessity logic of causality, which, despite its inherent merits in parsimony and predictive accuracy, has not received adequate attention. Our ...paper begins by providing a comprehensive review of various causal logic, including sufficiency, necessity, and contributory. We then critically examine the key assumptions of necessary causation (i.e., non-additivity, determinism, and asymmetry), and highlight the benefits of necessary causalities in theoretical innovation. Also, we workshop methodological protocols for necessity theory testing. Subsequently, we explore the potential of integrating necessity theories in the hospitality and tourism field by drawing on conceptual-contextual theorizing, leading to the development of “homegrown” theories. We also contend that necessary causality in transdisciplinary research can facilitate broader knowledge exchange to neighboring domains. We conclude by identifying promising research areas for necessity theorizing and testing in hospitality and tourism research.
Defends and transforms naturalism and materialism to show how culture itself is formed by nature. Bryant endorses a pan-ecological theory of being, arguing that societies are ecosystems that can only ...be understood by considering nonhuman material agencies such as rivers and mountain ranges alongside signifying agencies such as discourses, narratives and ideologies.
Although there have been many studies on the subjective well-being of entrepreneurs, these have compared entrepreneurs’ well-being with those of non-entrepreneurs, or with economic and firm ...performance, or attempted to identify the determinants their subjective well-being. So far there have been only limited attempts to compare the subjective well-being of differently motivated entrepreneurs. This paper is an attempt to contribute filling this gap. We explore the relationship between the motivation for entering into entrepreneurship and subjective well-being. We use data from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor in 70 countries covering 159,274 individuals. Using a two-stage probit least squares estimator to test the relationship between motivation and subjective well-being, with particular concern for the direction of causality, we find that necessity-motivated entrepreneurs report well-being levels similar to opportunity-motivated entrepreneurs. We also find that in countries where necessity entrepreneurship is more prevalent (typically developing countries), lower rates of entrepreneurial entry will be associated with higher reported subjective well-being of the necessity-motivated entrepreneurs. The upshot of our findings is that entrepreneurship, even if motivated by necessity, contributes to subjective well-being.
We analyse entrepreneurial entry along the dimensions of informal-formal and necessity-opportunity entrepreneurship, distinguishing between them yet considering them jointly. While the dominant view ...in the literature conflates necessity with informal entry, and opportunity with formal entry, we hypothesise that informal entrepreneurship may be attractive to higher-income individuals as a testing ground for entrepreneurial ideas. We also explain why higher-income individuals may undertake necessity entrepreneurship. We utilise individual Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) data from Chile (2019–2021), which identifies informal-formal and necessity-opportunity entrepreneurial entry modes, to test hypotheses on the role of individuals´ income in the four types of entrepreneurial entry. We also consider changes in entrepreneurial entry during a crisis and a non-crisis periods. Our results confirm that the patterns in the data are consistent with hypotheses derived from our proposed theoretical framework.
Emerging markets economies have very large informal sectors, and their entrepreneurial entry is often motivated by economic necessity rather than by business opportunity. But neither informal nor necessity entrepreneurship are usually expected to generate the positive benefits for growth and development predicted for formal and opportunity entrepreneurship. We argue that the dominant stream in the literature actually conflates informal and necessity entrepreneurship, both of which have been associated with low human and financial capital and productivity. We propose that the appropriate typology is more complex than this because there are examples of successful and dynamic informal firms. This leads us to identify four categories of entrepreneurial entry: informal-necessity (Type 1), formal-opportunity (Type 2), informal-opportunity (Type 3), and formal-necessity (Type 4). While necessity entrepreneurship has typically been associated with low-income individuals, we propose that formal-necessity entrepreneurship may be an entry path for both low- and high-income individuals, though for different reasons. Informal opportunity entry may likewise be an option for people with low-income as well as high-income.
We therefore seek to disentangle the analysis of opportunity-necessity and of formal-informal entry and to demonstrate that the two less explored entry modes - informal-opportunity, and formal-necessity - are of considerable theoretical and practical significance in emerging economies. We test our framework in the emerging market economy setting of Chile, one of the more prosperous and open economies in Latin America. We use Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) data which uniquely for Chile allow us to distinguish between individuals along both the formal-informal and the necessity-opportunity dimensions. On this basis, we distinguish empirically between these four categories of entrepreneurial entry and explain how higher-income individuals may use informal-opportunity entrepreneurial entry as a “seed bed” to test their new business ideas. At the same time, we show that necessity entrepreneurship may be attractive to both lower- and higher-income individuals.
We also show that the interplay between individuals´ income groups and four entrepreneurial entry modes is stable over “normal times” versus “crisis periods”. We observe that in response to a crisis, individuals with lower-incomes are likely to engage more in informal-necessity entrepreneurship while opportunity-informal entry by higher-income individuals will decline. These changes represent a more complex adjustment pattern than has been identified for developed economies, where entrepreneurial activity has been found to be countercyclical. Thus, in emerging markets, informal-necessity entrepreneurship plays a stabilizing role for those individuals with a more marginal position in the labor market during the crisis. In contrast, for those individuals who have access to higher household income, all forms of entrepreneurship become a less attractive option. We interpret this as indicating that these individuals have the option to wait for higher return opportunities to re-emerge. This is one of the first papers to explore the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on entrepreneurship in an emerging market economy.
•A distinction between informal-formal and necessity-opportunity entrepreneurial entries.•A new proposed four-way entrepreneurial entry framework before and during a crisis.•The attractiveness of informal and necessity entrepreneurship to higher-income individuals.•The patterns of formal and opportunity entrepreneurship from lower-income individuals.
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