Racial trauma, a form of race-based stress, refers to People of Color and Indigenous individuals' (POCI) reactions to dangerous events and real or perceived experiences of racial discrimination. Such ...experiences may include threats of harm and injury, humiliating and shaming events, and witnessing racial discrimination toward other POCI. Although similar to posttraumatic stress disorder, racial trauma is unique in that it involves ongoing individual and collective injuries due to exposure and reexposure to race-based stress. The articles in this special issue introduce new conceptual approaches, research, and healing models to challenge racial trauma. The authors encourage psychologists to develop culturally informed healing modalities and methodologically sophisticated research and urge the inclusion of public policy interventions in the area of racial trauma.
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This meta-analytic study systematically investigates the relations between perceived racial/ethnic discrimination and socioemotional distress, academics, and risky health behaviors during ...adolescence, and potential variation in these relations. The study included 214 peer-reviewed articles, theses, and dissertations, with 489 unique effect sizes on 91,338 unique adolescents. Random-effects meta-analyses across 11 separate indicators of well-being identified significant detrimental effects. Greater perceptions of racial/ethnic discrimination were linked to more depressive and internalizing symptoms; greater psychological distress; poorer self-esteem; lower academic achievement and engagement; less academic motivation; greater engagement in externalizing behaviors, risky sexual behaviors, and substance use; and more associations with deviant peers. Metaregression and subgroup analyses indicated differences by race/ethnicity, Gender × Race/Ethnicity interactions, developmental stage, timing of retrospective measurement of discrimination, and country. Overall, this study highlights the pernicious effects of racial/ethnic discrimination for adolescents across developmental domains and suggests who is potentially at greater risk.
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Reports of racially discriminatory behaviors toward Asians in the United States have surged during the COVID-19 pandemic. The current study examined self-reported racial discrimination toward Asians ...and Asian Americans living in the United States in relation to four mental and physical health outcomes: anxiety, depressive, and physical symptoms and sleep difficulties. The moderating role of social support was also examined. In addition, participants were asked to describe a specific instance of discrimination that had happened during the pandemic. Four hundred ten participants (Mage = 26.5 years, SD = 7.8; 47% female) responded via online survey from all across from the country. Nearly 30% reported an increase in discrimination since the pandemic, and over 40% reported an increase in anxiety, depressive symptoms, and sleep difficulties. The four multiple regressions were each significant, with higher levels of discrimination and lower levels of social support predicting more health problems for each outcome. Social support significantly buffered the effect of discrimination on depressive symptoms and marginally buffered the effect on physical symptoms. Conventional content analysis was used to identify multiple themes within the three broad categories of personal experiences with discrimination, experiences with a stigmatizing anti-Asian racist culture, and prevention of exposure to discrimination. Results indicate that Asians have experienced elevated racial discrimination during the COVID-19 pandemic, including hate crimes, microaggressions, and vicarious discrimination, and these experiences are associated with poorer self-reported mental and physical health.
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Adolescents of color are particularly poised to experience the mental health crisis partly due to the absence of a clear-cut solution that prepares them to cope with ethnic/racial discrimination. One ...resilience-promoting factor in minoritized adolescents’ lives is cultural socialization (i.e., the beliefs, practices, and worldviews that youth receive about their ethnic/racial group’s heritage, history, and values), but the role of cultural socialization in relation to adolescents’ resilience in the face of ethnic/racial discrimination is sporadic with extant studies documenting mixed results. Prior studies are likely limited by their focus on cultural socialization from parents relative to school adults and the larger school context. Following ethnic/racial discrimination, school-based cultural socialization may reduce youth’s anticipation of discrimination, trust in others from different ethnic/racial groups, and rejection sensitivity. To test our theories, the present study used two daily diaries: Study 1 followed 134 African American adolescents over a 14-day period ( N diaries = 1,494), and Study 2 followed 159 Asian American and Latinx adolescents over a 30-day period ( N diaries = 3,458). In both studies, on days when ethnic/racial discrimination occurred, adolescents reported greater negative affect. This daily effect of ethnic–racial discrimination on negative affect was exacerbated on days when adolescents received less school-based cultural socialization but weaker on days when adolescents received more school-based cultural socialization. The present studies underscore how school adults foster youth’s resilience in the context of ethnic/racial adversity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: journal abstract)
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Racial-ethnic discrimination leads to poorer academic and mental health outcomes for Latinx youth. Although there is a growing literature on the resilience processes that shield Latinx youth from the ...negative ramifications of these experiences, there is limited work that specifically considers the coping behaviors and processes that youth enact to counter the harmful impact of racial-ethnic discrimination. This limited work is further hampered by a lack of measurement tools that account for the uniqueness of racial-ethnic discrimination as a stressor and the culturally relevant coping strategies endemic to Latinx populations. This article reviews the mixed findings among studies that have examined discrimination, coping strategies, and Latinx youth outcomes. Furthermore, the pressing need for a new measure that would better capture the nuanced manner in which Latinx adolescents cope with racism-related stress is outlined. This work concludes with methodological considerations as well as recommendations for the field's study of coping with the insidious impact of racism-related stress among Latinx adolescents. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).
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Objectives: Racism is a critical determinant of racial inequalities in health. This article discusses three pressing challenges in the study of racism as a social determinant of health and identifies ...ideas to guide future psychological and behavioral research. Method: The first challenge is moving beyond a near-exclusive focus on individual racism. The second challenge is measuring racism, and the third challenge is elucidating the developmental pathways linking racism to health outcomes. Results: I recommend the consideration of institutional, cultural, and structural racism, the incorporation of developmental health and resilience perspectives, the use of diverse methods and transdisciplinary approaches, and improved education and training. Conclusions: Eliminating racism and racial health disparities will require: 1) a bold, comprehensive, and sustained agenda that addresses structural forms of racism and unpacks developmental mechanisms underlying racism and poor health; 2) improved measurement, diverse methods, and new analysis; and 3) coalition building across disciplines and with community partners, organizers, and activists.
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Suicide is a leading cause of death among Black emerging adults. The concurrent effect of the COVID-19 pandemic and racial discrimination were projected to exacerbate suicide vulnerability for Black ...Americans. The purpose of the present study was to utilize a risk-resilience model to examine the effects of racial discrimination and COVID-related stress on suicide risk for Black emerging adults, as well as the moderating effect of three central components of radical healing: critical consciousness, resilience, and cultural authenticity. Study participants included 521 Black emerging adults between the ages of 18 and 29 (51.6% male; M age = 24.6, SD = 2.6) who completed measures evaluating symptoms of racial discrimination, COVID-related stress, suicide risk, and psychological well-being. After controlling for age, gender, socioeconomic status, and general stress, structural equation modeling analyses revealed unique and interactive effects of racial discrimination, COVID-related stress, and culturally relevant protective factors on suicide risk for Black emerging adults. These findings provide preliminary insight into novel risk and protective factors that influence suicide risk for Black emerging adults. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: journal abstract)
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This study examined how ethnic–racial identity (ERI) profiles moderate the relationship between racial discrimination and mental health among Black American adults. Black American adults ( n = 247) ...recruited from a community-based sample completed self-report measures of ERI, racial discrimination, depression, psychological distress, and emotional well-being. Latent profile analysis (LPA) identified four distinct ERI profiles, corresponding to the ERI status theorized in prior research—Diffusion, Moratorium, and Achievement—and a fourth profile, which corresponded to an ERI status for High Achievement. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that greater racial discrimination was significantly related to worse mental health for all outcomes and that having an ERI profile of High Achievement was significantly associated with lower depression. Moderation analysis indicated that the ERI profile for Achievement protected against depression and psychological distress in the context of high racial discrimination. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: journal abstract)
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The social category "children" defines a group of individuals who are perceived to be distinct, with essential characteristics including innocence and the need for protection (Haslam, Rothschild, & ...Ernst, 2000). The present research examined whether Black boys are given the protections of childhood equally to their peers. We tested 3 hypotheses: (a) that Black boys are seen as less "childlike" than their White peers, (b) that the characteristics associated with childhood will be applied less when thinking specifically about Black boys relative to White boys, and (c) that these trends would be exacerbated in contexts where Black males are dehumanized by associating them (implicitly) with apes (Goff, Eberhardt, Williams, & Jackson, 2008). We expected, derivative of these 3 principal hypotheses, that individuals would perceive Black boys as being more responsible for their actions and as being more appropriate targets for police violence. We find support for these hypotheses across 4 studies using laboratory, field, and translational (mixed laboratory/field) methods. We find converging evidence that Black boys are seen as older and less innocent and that they prompt a less essential conception of childhood than do their White same-age peers. Further, our findings demonstrate that the Black/ape association predicted actual racial disparities in police violence toward children. These data represent the first attitude/behavior matching of its kind in a policing context. Taken together, this research suggests that dehumanization is a uniquely dangerous intergroup attitude, that intergroup perception of children is underexplored, and that both topics should be research priorities.
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This article reports a meta-analysis of studies examining the predictive validity of the Implicit Association Test (IAT) and explicit measures of bias for a wide range of criterion measures of ...discrimination. The meta-analysis estimates the heterogeneity of effects within and across 2 domains of intergroup bias (interracial and interethnic), 6 criterion categories (interpersonal behavior, person perception, policy preference, microbehavior, response time, and brain activity), 2 versions of the IAT (stereotype and attitude IATs), 3 strategies for measuring explicit bias (feeling thermometers, multi-item explicit measures such as the Modern Racism Scale, and ad hoc measures of intergroup attitudes and stereotypes), and 4 criterion-scoring methods (computed majority-minority difference scores, relative majority-minority ratings, minority-only ratings, and majority-only ratings). IATs were poor predictors of every criterion category other than brain activity, and the IATs performed no better than simple explicit measures. These results have important implications for the construct validity of IATs, for competing theories of prejudice and attitude-behavior relations, and for measuring and modeling prejudice and discrimination.
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