Conventional wisdom has rendered patients with brain metastases ineligible for clinical trials for fear that poor survival could mask the benefit of otherwise promising treatments. Our group ...previously published the diagnosis-specific Graded Prognostic Assessment (GPA). Updates with larger contemporary cohorts using molecular markers and newly identified prognostic factors have been published. The purposes of this work are to present all the updated indices in a single report to guide treatment choice, stratify research, and define an eligibility quotient to expand eligibility.
A multi-institutional database of 6,984 patients with newly diagnosed brain metastases underwent multivariable analyses of prognostic factors and treatments associated with survival for each primary site. Significant factors were used to define the updated GPA. GPAs of 4.0 and 0.0 correlate with the best and worst prognoses, respectively.
Significant prognostic factors varied by diagnosis and new prognostic factors were identified. Those factors were incorporated into the updated GPA with robust separation (
< .01) between subgroups. Survival has improved, but varies widely by GPA for patients with non-small-cell lung, breast, melanoma, GI, and renal cancer with brain metastases from 7-47 months, 3-36 months, 5-34 months, 3-17 months, and 4-35 months, respectively.
Median survival varies widely and our ability to estimate survival for patients with brain metastases has improved. The updated GPA (available free at brainmetgpa.com) provides an accurate tool with which to estimate survival, individualize treatment, and stratify clinical trials. Instead of excluding patients with brain metastases, enrollment should be encouraged and those trials should be stratified by the GPA to ensure those trials make appropriate comparisons. Furthermore, we recommend the expansion of eligibility to allow for the enrollment of patients with previously treated brain metastases who have a 50% or greater probability of an additional year of survival (eligibility quotient > 0.50).
Two modern methods of reirradiation, intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) and stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT), are established for patients with recurrent or second primary ...squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (rSCCHN). We performed a retrospective multi-institutional analysis to compare methods.
Data from patients with unresectable rSCCHN previously irradiated to ≥40 Gy who underwent reirradiation with IMRT or SBRT were collected from 8 institutions. First, the prognostic value of our IMRT-based recursive partitioning analysis (RPA) separating those patients with unresectable tumors with an intertreatment interval >2 years or those with ≤2 years and without feeding tube or tracheostomy dependence (class II) from other patients with unresected tumors (class III) was investigated among SBRT patients. Overall survival (OS) and locoregional failure were then compared between IMRT and SBRT by use of 2 methods to control for baseline differences: Cox regression weighted by the inverse probability of treatment and subset analysis by RPA classification.
The study included 414 patients with unresectable rSCCHN: 217 with IMRT and 197 with SBRT. The unadjusted 2-year OS rate was 35.4% for IMRT and 16.3% for SBRT (P<.01). Among SBRT patients, RPA classification retained an independent association with OS. On Cox regression weighted by the inverse probability of treatment, no significant differences in OS or locoregional failure between IMRT and SBRT were demonstrated. Analysis by RPA class showed similar OS between IMRT and SBRT for class III patients. In all class II patients, IMRT was associated with improved OS (P<.001). Further subset analysis demonstrated comparable OS when ≥35 Gy was delivered with SBRT to small tumor volumes. Acute grade ≥4 toxicity was greater in the IMRT group than in the SBRT group (5.1% vs 0.5%, P<.01), with no significant difference in late toxicity.
Reirradiation both with SBRT and with IMRT appear relatively safe with favorable toxicity compared with historical studies. Outcomes vary by RPA class, which informs clinical trial design. Survival is poor in class III patients, and alternative strategies are needed.
The therapeutic ratio of reirradiation for recurrent or second primary (RSP) squamous carcinoma of the head and neck may be improved in the intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) era. However, ...patient selection for reirradiation remains challenging. We performed a multi-institution cohort study to investigate modern outcomes after IMRT-based reirradiation and to identify prognostic subgroups.
Patients with RSP squamous carcinoma originating in a previously irradiated field (≥40 Gy) who underwent reirradiation with IMRT (≥40 Gy re-IMRT) were included. Locoregional failure and late toxicity were calculated using the Gray competing risk method. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to identify factors associated with overall survival (OS). Factors associated with OS were entered into a recursive partitioning analysis (RPA) for OS.
From 7 institutions, 412 patients were included. The median dose of re-IMRT was 60 Gy, and the median time between RT courses was 2.4 years. Chemotherapy was used in 76% of patients. The rates of grade ≥3, grade ≥4, and grade 5 acute toxicities were 19%, 4.4%, and 1.2%, respectively. The 2-year cumulative incidence of grade ≥3 late toxicity adjusted for the competing risks of recurrence or death was 14.2%. RPA identified 3 prognostic subgroups with distinct and homogenous OS (P<.001): class I included patients >2 years from their initial course of RT with resected tumors (2-year OS, 61.9%); class II included patients >2 years with unresected tumors or those ≤2 years and without feeding tube or tracheostomy dependence (2-year OS, 40.0%), and the remaining patients formed class III (2-year OS, 16.8%). Fifty-nine percent of class III patients underwent postoperative re-irradiation.
This study informs outcomes and expectations with IMRT-based reirradiation. The RPA classification identifies 3 distinct subgroups, which can guide patient selection for therapy and clinical trial design. RPA class III patients are not ideal candidates for protracted chemoradiation regardless of resection status.
Patients with lung cancer and brain metastases represent a markedly heterogeneous population. Accurate prognosis is essential to optimally individualize care. In prior publications, we described the ...graded prognostic assessment (GPA), but a GPA for patients with small cell lung cancer (SCLC) has never been reported, and in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), the effect of programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) was unknown. The 3-fold purpose of this work is to provide the initial report of an SCLC GPA, to evaluate the effect of PD-L1 on survival in patients with NSCLC, and to update the Lung GPA accordingly.
A multivariable analysis of prognostic factors and treatments associated with survival was performed on 4183 patients with lung cancer (3002 adenocarcinoma, 611 nonadenocarcinoma, 570 SCLC) with newly diagnosed brain metastases between January 1, 2015, and December 31, 2020, using a multi-institutional retrospective database. Significant variables were used to update the Lung GPA.
Overall median survival for lung adenocarcinoma, SCLC, and nonadenocarcinoma was 17, 10, and 8 months, respectively, but varied widely by GPA from 2 to 52 months. In SCLC, the significant prognostic factors were age, performance status, extracranial metastases, and number of brain metastases. In NSCLC, the distribution of molecular markers among patients with lung adenocarcinoma and known primary tumor molecular status revealed alterations/expression in PD-L1 50% to 100%, PD-L1 1% to 49%, epidermal growth factor receptor, and anaplastic lymphoma kinase in 32%, 31%, 30%, and 7%, respectively. Median survival of patients with lung adenocarcinoma and brain metastases with 0, 1% to 49%, and ≥50% PD-L1 expression was 17, 19, and 24 months, respectively (P < .01), confirming PD-L1 is a prognostic factor. Previously identified prognostic factors for NSCLC (epidermal growth factor receptor and anaplastic lymphoma kinase status, performance status, age, number of brain metastases, and extracranial metastases) were reaffirmed. These factors were incorporated into the updated Lung GPA with robust separation between subgroups for all histologies.
Survival for patients with lung cancer and brain metastases has improved but varies widely. The initial report of a GPA for SCLC is presented. For patients with NSCLC-adenocarcinoma and brain metastases, PD-L1 is a newly identified significant prognostic factor, and the previously identified factors were reaffirmed. The updated indices establish unique criteria for SCLC, NSCLC-nonadenocarcinoma, and NSCLC-adenocarcinoma (incorporating PD-L1). The updated Lung GPA, available for free at brainmetgpa.com, provides an accurate tool to estimate survival, individualize treatment, and stratify clinical trials.
Brain metastases cause significant morbidity and mortality in patients with advanced cancer. In the era of precision oncology and immunotherapy, there are rapidly evolving systemic treatment options. ...These novel therapies may have variable intracranial efficacy, and patients with brain metastases remain a population of special interest. Typically, only patients with stable, asymptomatic and/or treated brain metastases are enrolled in clinical trials, or may be excluded altogether, particularly in the setting of leptomeningeal carcinomatosis. Consequently, this leads to significant concerns on the external validity of clinical trial evidence to real-world clinical practice. Here we describe the current trends in cancer clinical trial eligibility for patients with brain metastases in both early and late phase trials, with a focus on targeted and immunotherapies. We evaluate recent newly FDA approved therapies and the clinical trial evidence base leading to approval. This includes analysis of inclusion and exclusion criteria, requirements for baseline screening for brain metastases, surveillance cerebral imaging and incorporation of trial endpoints for patients with brain metastases. Finally, the use of alternative sources of data such as real-world evidence with registries and collaborative studies will be discussed.
Limited data exist to guide the treatment technique for reirradiation of recurrent or second primary squamous carcinoma of the head and neck. We performed a multi-institution retrospective cohort ...study to investigate the effect of the elective treatment volume, dose, and fractionation on outcomes and toxicity.
Patients with recurrent or second primary squamous carcinoma originating in a previously irradiated field (≥40 Gy) who had undergone reirradiation with intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT); (≥40 Gy re-IMRT) were included. The effect of elective nodal treatment, dose, and fractionation on overall survival (OS), locoregional control, and acute and late toxicity were assessed. The Kaplan-Meier and Gray's competing risks methods were used for actuarial endpoints.
From 8 institutions, 505 patients were included in the present updated analysis. The elective neck was not treated in 56.4% of patients. The median dose of re-IMRT was 60 Gy (range 39.6-79.2). Hyperfractionation was used in 20.2%. Systemic therapy was integrated for 77.4% of patients. Elective nodal radiation therapy did not appear to decrease the risk of locoregional failure (LRF) or improve the OS rate. Doses of ≥66 Gy were associated with improvements in both LRF and OS in the definitive re-IMRT setting. However, dose did not obviously affect LRF or OS in the postoperative re-IMRT setting. Hyperfractionation was not associated with improved LRF or OS. The rate of acute grade ≥3 toxicity was 22.1% overall. On multivariable logistic regression, elective neck irradiation was associated with increased acute toxicity in the postoperative setting. The rate of overall late grade ≥3 toxicity was 16.7%, with patients treated postoperatively with hyperfractionation experiencing the highest rates.
Doses of ≥66 Gy might be associated with improved outcomes in high-performance patients undergoing definitive re-IMRT. Postoperatively, doses of 50 to 66 Gy appear adequate after removal of gross disease. Hyperfractionation and elective neck irradiation were not associated with an obvious benefit and might increase toxicity.
Purpose
Online Adaptive Radiation Therapy (oART) follows a different treatment paradigm than conventional radiotherapy, and because of this, the resources, implementation, and workflows needed are ...unique. The purpose of this report is to outline our institution's experience establishing, organizing, and implementing an oART program using the Ethos therapy system.
Methods
We include resources used, operational models utilized, program creation timelines, and our institutional experiences with the implementation and operation of an oART program. Additionally, we provide a detailed summary of our first year's clinical experience where we delivered over 1000 daily adaptive fractions. For all treatments, the different stages of online adaption, primary patient set‐up, initial kV‐CBCT acquisition, contouring review and edit of influencer structures, target review and edits, plan evaluation and selection, Mobius3D 2nd check and adaptive QA, 2nd kV‐CBCT for positional verification, treatment delivery, and patient leaving the room, were analyzed.
Results
We retrospectively analyzed data from 97 patients treated from August 2021–August 2022. One thousand six hundred seventy seven individual fractions were treated and analyzed, 632(38%) were non‐adaptive and 1045(62%) were adaptive. Seventy four of the 97 patients (76%) were treated with standard fractionation and 23 (24%) received stereotactic treatments. For the adaptive treatments, the generated adaptive plan was selected in 92% of treatments. On average(±std), adaptive sessions took 34.52 ± 11.42 min from start to finish. The entire adaptive process (from start of contour generation to verification CBCT), performed by the physicist (and physician on select days), was 19.84 ± 8.21 min.
Conclusion
We present our institution's experience commissioning an oART program using the Ethos therapy system. It took us 12 months from project inception to the treatment of our first patient and 12 months to treat 1000 adaptive fractions. Retrospective analysis of delivered fractions showed that the average overall treatment time was approximately 35 min and the average time for the adaptive component of treatment was approximately 20 min.
Accelerated partial breast irradiation (APBI) is an attractive treatment modality for eligible patients as it has been shown to result in similar local control and improved cosmetic outcomes compared ...with whole breast radiation therapy. The use of online adaptive radiation therapy (OART) for APBI is promising as it allows for a reduction of planning target volume margins because breast motion and lumpectomy cavity volume changes are accounted for in daily imaging. Here we present a retrospective, single-institution evaluation on the adequacy of kV-cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) OART for APBI treatments.
Nineteen patients (21 treatment sites) were treated to 30 Gy in 5 fractions between January of 2022 and May of 2023. Time between simulation and treatment, change in gross tumor (ie, lumpectomy cavity) volume, and differences in dose volume histogram metrics with adaption were analyzed. The Wilcoxon paired, nonparametric test was used to test for dose volume histogram metric differences between the scheduled plans (initial plans recalculated on daily CBCT anatomy) and delivered plans, either the scheduled or adapted plan, which was reoptimized using daily anatomy.
Median (interquartile range) time from simulation to first treatment was 26 days (21-32 days). During this same time, median gross tumor volume reduction was 16.0% (7.3%-23.9%) relative to simulation volume. Adaptive treatments took 31.3 minutes (27.4-36.6 minutes) from start of CBCT to treatment session end. At treatment, the adaptive plan was selected for 86% (89/103) of evaluable fractions. In evaluating plan quality, 78% of delivered plans met all target, organs at risk, and conformity metrics evaluated, compared with 34% of scheduled plans.
Use of OART for stereotactic linac-based APBI allowed for safe, high-quality treatments in this cohort of 21 treatment courses. Although treatment delivery times were longer than traditional stereotactic body treatments, there were notable improvements in plan quality for APBI using OART.
•Re-irradiation of the head and neck is feasible but associated with late side effects.•The relationship between late toxicity and the competing risks of progression or death is unclear.•The ...long-term chance of survival without late toxicity ranged from only 0–25% based on RPA class.
Severe late toxicity is common after re-irradiation for recurrent or second primary (RSP) squamous carcinoma of the head and neck. However, many patients experience complications from tumor progression before manifesting late effects. We constructed a nomogram to examine this relationship between late toxicity and competing risks.
Patients with RSP squamous carcinoma originating in a field previously irradiated to ≥40 Gy and treated with IMRT-based re-irradiation to ≥40 Gy were collected. Grade ≥3 late toxicity developing ≥90 days after re-irradiation was collected. A multivariable competing-risk model was fit to the actuarial risk of late toxicity with progression or death as the competing risk. The final bootstrap optimized model was converted into a nomogram.
From 9 institutions, 505 patients were included. The 2-year incidence of grade ≥3 late toxicity was 16.7% (95% CI 13.2–20.2%) whereas progression or death was 64.2% (95% CI 59.7–68.8%). The median freedom from late toxicity, progression or death was 10.7, 5.5 and 3.2 months for RPA class I-III patients respectively, whereas the median OS was 44.9, 15.9 and 7.9 months, respectively. The final model included six clinical factors. Notably, dose, volume and fractionation did not significantly impact toxicity.
After re-irradiation, the risk of progression or death is approximately four times the risk of radiation-related severe late toxicity. The risk of late toxicity may be more dependent on patient and disease factors than modifiable treatment factors. This model is useful for patient selection, pre-treatment consent and post-treatment survivorship following re-irradiation.
This report details our institutional workflow and technique for use of the Calypso electromagnetic transponder system with respiratory gating for localization and tracking of lung tumors during ...stereotactic radiation therapy for early stage thoracic malignancies.
Sixteen patients underwent bronchoscopic fiducial placement of 3 transponders in small airways in proximity to the primary tumor. Transponders were placed <19 cm from the most anterior skin location of the patient for appropriate tracking functionality. Patients underwent simulation with 4-dimensional assessment and were treated with transponder based positional gating if tumors moved >5 mm in any direction. Tumor motion <5 mm was not gated and treated using an internal target volume approach. A 5 mm uniform planning target volume was used. Before treatment, fiducial placement and tumor location were verified by daily kilovoltage (kV) and cone beam computed tomography image guidance. Tracking limits were placed based on the movement of the transponders from the centroid of the structures on the maximum intensity projection image. The Calypso treatment system paused treatment automatically if beacons shifted beyond the predefined tracking limits.
All 16 patients underwent successful implantation of the electromagnetic transponders. Eight patients exhibited tumor motion sufficient to require respiratory gating, and the other 8 patients were treated using a free breathing internal target volume technique. Difficulty with transponder sensing was experienced in 3 patients as a result of anatomic interference with the placement of the sensing arrays; each of these cases was successfully treated after making setup modifications. Triggered imaging of fiducials during treatment was consistent with real-time positioning determined by the Calypso tracking system.
Respiratory gated electromagnetic based transponder guided stereotactic body radiation therapy using the workflow described is feasible and well tolerated in selected patients with early stage lung malignancies.
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