Transmission spectroscopy provides us with information on the atmospheric properties at the limb, which is often intuitively assumed to be a narrow annulus around the planet. Consequently, studies ...have focused on the effect of atmospheric horizontal heterogeneities along the limb. Here we demonstrate that the region probed in transmission – the limb – actually extends significantly towards the day and night sides of the planet. We show that the strong day–night thermal and compositional gradients expected on synchronous exoplanets create sufficient heterogeneities across the limb that result in important systematic effects on the spectrum and bias its interpretation. To quantify these effects, we developed a 3D radiative-transfer model able to generate transmission spectra of atmospheres based on 3D atmospheric structures. We first apply this tool to a simulation of the atmosphere of GJ 1214 b to produce synthetic JWST observations and show that producing a spectrum using only atmospheric columns at the terminator results in errors greater than expected noise. This demonstrates the necessity for a real 3D approach to model data for such precise observatories. Secondly, we investigate how day–night temperature gradients cause a systematic bias in retrieval analysis performed with 1D forward models. For that purpose we synthesise a large set of forward spectra for prototypical HD 209458 b- and GJ 1214 b-type planets varying the temperatures of the day and night sides as well as the width of the transition region. We then perform typical retrieval analyses and compare the retrieved parameters to the ground truth of the input model. This study reveals systematic biases on the retrieved temperature (found to be higher than the terminator temperature) and abundances. This is due to the fact that the hotter dayside is more extended vertically and screens the nightside – a result of the non-linear properties of atmospheric transmission. These biases will be difficult to detect as the 1D profiles used in the retrieval procedure are found to provide an excellent match to the observed spectra based on standard fitting criteria. This must be kept in mind when interpreting current and future data.
Context. Stellar activity and convection-related surface structures might cause bias in planet detection and characterization that use these transits. Surface convection simulations help to quantify ...the granulation signal. Aims. We used realistic three-dimensional (3D) radiative hydrodynamical (RHD) simulations from the Stagger grid and synthetic images computed with the radiative transfer code Optim3D to model the transits of three prototype planets: a hot Jupiter, a hot Neptune, and a terrestrial planet. Methods. We computed intensity maps from RHD simulations of the Sun and a K-dwarf star at different wavelength bands from optical to far-infrared that cover the range of several ground- and space-based telescopes which observe exoplanet transits. We modeled the transit using synthetic stellar-disk images obtained with a spherical-tile imaging method and emulated the temporal variation of the granulation intensity generating random images covering a granulation time-series of 13.3 h. We measured the contribution of the stellar granulation on the light curves during the planet transit. Results. We identified two types of granulation noise that act simultaneously during the planet transit: (i) the intrinsic change in the granulation pattern with timescale (e.g., 10 min for solar-type stars assumed in this work) is smaller than the usual planet transit (~hours as in our prototype cases); and (ii) the fact that the transiting planet occults isolated regions of the photosphere that differ in local surface brightness as a result of convective-related surface structures. First, we showed that our modeling approach returns granulation timescale fluctuations that are comparable with what has been observed for the Sun. Then, our statistical approach shows that the granulation pattern of solar and K-dwarf-type stars have a non-negligible effect of the light curve depth during the transit, and, consequentially on the determination of the planet transit parameters such as the planet radius (up to 0.90% and ~0.47% for terrestrial and gaseous planets, respectively). We also showed that larger (or smaller) orbital inclination angles with respect to values corresponding to transit at the stellar center display a shallower transit depth and longer ingress and egress times, but also granulation fluctuations that are correlated to the center-to-limb variation: they increase (or decrease) the value of the inclination, which amplifies the fluctuations. The granulation noise appears to be correlated among the different wavelength ranges either in the visible or in the infrared regions. Conclusions. The prospects for planet detection and characterization with transiting methods are excellent with access to large amounts of data for stars. The granulation has to be considered as an intrinsic uncertainty (as a result of stellar variability) on the precise measurements of exoplanet transits of planets. The full characterization of the granulation is essential for determining the degree of uncertainty on the planet parameters. In this context, the use of 3D RHD simulations is important to measure the convection-related fluctuations. This can be achieved by performing precise and continuous observations of stellar photometry and radial velocity, as we explained with RHD simulations, before, after, and during the transit periods.
We report on an intensive observational campaign carried out with HARPS at the 3.6 m telescope at La Silla on the star CoRoT-7. Additional simultaneous photometric measurements carried out with the ...Euler Swiss telescope have demonstrated that the observed radial velocity variations are dominated by rotational modulation from cool spots on the stellar surface. Several approaches were used to extract the radial velocity signal of the planet(s) from the stellar activity signal. First, a simple pre-whitening procedure was employed to find and subsequently remove periodic signals from the complex frequency structure of the radial velocity data. The dominant frequency in the power spectrum was found at 23 days, which corresponds to the rotation period of CoRoT-7. The 0.8535 day period of CoRoT-7b planetary candidate was detected with an amplitude of 3.3 m s-1. Most other frequencies, some with amplitudes larger than the CoRoT-7b signal, are most likely associated with activity. A second approach used harmonic decomposition of the rotational period and up to the first three harmonics to filter out the activity signal from radial velocity variations caused by orbiting planets. After correcting the radial velocity data for activity, two periodic signals are detected: the CoRoT-7b transit period and a second one with a period of 3.69 days and an amplitude of 4 m s-1. This second signal was also found in the pre-whitening analysis. We attribute the second signal to a second, more remote planet CoRoT-7c . The orbital solution of both planets is compatible with circular orbits. The mass of CoRoT-7b is $4.8\pm0.8$ ($M_{\oplus}$) and that of CoRoT-7c is $8.4\pm 0.9$ ($M_{\oplus}$), assuming both planets are on coplanar orbits. We also investigated the false positive scenario of a blend by a faint stellar binary, and this may be rejected by the stability of the bisector on a nightly scale. According to their masses both planets belong to the super-Earth planet category. The average density of CoRoT-7b is $\rho=5.6\pm 1.3\mathrm{\,g\,cm^{-3}}$, similar to the Earth. The CoRoT-7 planetary system provides us with the first insight into the physical nature of short period super-Earth planets recently detected by radial velocity surveys. These planets may be denser than Neptune and therefore likely made of rocks like the Earth, or a mix of water ice and rocks.
Context. Basic atmospheric properties, such as albedo and heat redistribution between day- and nightsides, have been inferred for a number of planets using observations of secondary eclipses and ...thermal phase curves. Optical phase curves have not yet been used to constrain these atmospheric properties consistently. Aims. We model previously published phase curves of CoRoT-1b, TrES-2b, and HAT-P-7b, and infer albedos and recirculation efficiencies. These are then compared to previous estimates based on secondary eclipse data. Methods. We use a physically consistent model to construct optical phase curves. This model takes Lambertian reflection, thermal emission, ellipsoidal variations, and Doppler boosting, into account. Results. CoRoT-1b shows a non-negligible scattering albedo (0.11 < AS < 0.3 at 95% confidence) as well as small day-night temperature contrasts, which are indicative of moderate to high re-distribution of energy between dayside and nightside. These values are contrary to previous secondary eclipse and phase curve analyses. In the case of HAT-P-7b, model results suggest a relatively high scattering albedo (AS ≈ 0.3). This confirms previous phase curve analysis; however, it is in slight contradiction to values inferred from secondary eclipse data. For TrES-2b, both approaches yield very similar estimates of albedo and heat recirculation. Discrepancies between recirculation and albedo values as inferred from secondary eclipse and optical phase curve analyses might be interpreted as a hint that optical and IR observations probe different atmospheric layers, hence temperatures.
Context. Clouds have been shown to be present in many exoplanetary atmospheres. Cloud formation modeling predicts considerable inhomogeneities of cloud cover, consistent with optical phase curve ...observations. However, optical phase curves cannot resolve some existing degeneracies between cloud location and cloud optical properties. Aims. We present a conceptually simple technique for detecting inhomogeneous cloud cover on exoplanets. Such an inhomogeneous cloud cover produces an asymmetric primary transit of the planet in front of the host star. Asymmetric transits produce characteristic residuals that are different from standard symmetric models. Furthermore, bisector spans can be used to determine asymmetries in the transit light curve. Methods. We apply a model of asymmetric transits to the light curves of HAT-P-7b, Kepler-7b, and HD 209458b and search for possible cloud signatures. The nearly uninterrupted Kepler photometry is particularly well suited for this method since it allows for a very high time resolution. Results. We do not find any statistically sound cloud signature in the data of the considered planets. For HAT-P-7b, a tentative detection of an asymmetric cloud cover is found, consistent with analysis of the optical phase curve. Based on Bayesian probability arguments, a symmetric model with an offset in the transit ephemeris is still the most viable model. This work demonstrates that for suitable targets, namely low-gravity planets around bright stars, the method can be used to constrain cloud cover characteristics and is thus a helpful additional tool for the study of exoplanetary atmospheres.
The first super-Earth with measured radius discovered was CoRoT-7b and it has opened the new field of rocky exoplanet characterisation. To better understand this interesting system, new observations ...were taken with the CoRoT satellite. During this run 90 new transits were obtained in the imagette mode. These were analysed together with the previous 151 transits obtained in the discovery run and HARPS radial velocity observations to derive accurate system parameters. A difference is found in the posterior probability distribution of the transit parameters between the previous CoRoT run (LRa01) and the new run (LRa06). We propose that this is due to an extra noise component in the previous CoRoT run suspected of being transit spot occultation events. These lead to the mean transit shape becoming V-shaped. We show that the extra noise component is dominant at low stellar flux levels and reject these transits in the final analysis. We obtained a planetary radius, Rp = 1.585 ± 0.064 R⊕ , in agreement with previous estimates. Combining the planetary radius with the new mass estimates results in a planetary density of 1.19 ± 0.27 ρ⊕ which is consistent with a rocky composition. The CoRoT-7 system remains an excellent test bed for the effects of activity in the derivation of planetary parameters in the shallow transit regime.
Context. The CoRoT mission, a pioneer in exoplanet searches from space, has completed its first 150 days of continuous observations of ~12 000 stars in the galactic plane. An analysis of the raw data ...identifies the most promising candidates and triggers the ground-based follow-up. Aims. We report on the discovery of the transiting planet CoRoT-Exo-2b, with a period of 1.743 days, and characterize its main parameters. Methods. We filter the CoRoT raw light curve of cosmic impacts, orbital residuals, and low frequency signals from the star. The folded light curve of 78 transits is fitted to a model to obtain the main parameters. Radial velocity data obtained with the SOPHIE, CORALIE and HARPS spectrographs are combined to characterize the system. The 2.5 min binned phase-folded light curve is affected by the effect of sucessive occultations of stellar active regions by the planet, and the dispersion in the out of transit part reaches a level of 1.09$\times$10-4 in flux units. Results. We derive a radius for the planet of 1.465 ± 0.029 RJup and a mass of 3.31 ± 0.16 MJup, corresponding to a density of 1.31 ± 0.04 g/cm3. The large radius of CoRoT-Exo-2b cannot be explained by current models of evolution of irradiated planets.
Context. CoRoT is a pioneering space mission devoted to the analysis of stellar variability and the photometric detection of extrasolar planets. Aims. We present the list of planetary transit ...candidates detected in the first field observed by CoRoT, IRa01, the initial run toward the Galactic anticenter, which lasted for 60 days. Methods. We analysed 3898 sources in the coloured bands and 5974 in the monochromatic band. Instrumental noise and stellar variability were taken into account using detrending tools before applying various transit search algorithms. Results. Fifty sources were classified as planetary transit candidates and the most reliable 40 detections were declared targets for follow-up ground-based observations. Two of these targets have so far been confirmed as planets, CoRoT-1b and CoRoT-4b, for which a complete characterization and specific studies were performed.
Context. The pioneer space mission for photometric planet searches, CoRoT, steadily monitors about 12 000 stars in each of its fields of view. Transit candidates can be detected early in the ...processing of the data and before the end of a run of observation. Aims. We report the detection of the first planet discovered by CoRoT and characterizing it with the help of follow-up observations. Methods. Raw data were filtered from outliers and residuals at the orbital period of the satellite. The orbital parameters and the radius of the planet were estimated by best fitting the phase folded light curve with 34 successive transits. Doppler measurements with the SOPHIE spectrograph permitted us to secure the detection against binaries and to estimate the mass of the planet. Results. The accuracy of the data is very high with a dispersion in the 2.17 min binned phase-folded light curve that does not exceed ~3.$\times$10-4 in flux unit. The planet orbits a mildly metal-poor G0V star of magnitude $V=13.6$ in 1.5 days. The estimated mass and radius of the star are 0.95±0.15 $M_{\odot}$ and 1.11±0.05 $R_{\odot}$. We find the planet has a radius of 1.49±0.08 RJup, a mass of 1.03±0.12 MJup, and a particularly low mean density of 0.38±0.05 g cm-3.
The CoRoT space mission observed 163 665 stars over 26 stellar fields in the faint star channel. The exoplanet teams detected a total of 4123 transit-like features in the 177 454 light curves. We ...present the complete re-analysis of all these detections carried out with the same softwares so that to ensure their homogeneous analysis. Although the vetting process involves some human evaluation, it also involves a simple binary flag system over basic tests: detection significance, presence of a secondary, difference between odd and even depths, colour dependence, V-shape transit, and duration of the transit. We also gathered the information from the large accompanying ground-based programme carried out on the planet candidates and checked how useful the flag system could have been at the vetting stage of the candidates. From the initial list of transit-like features, we identified and separated 824 false alarms of various kind, 2269 eclipsing binaries among which 616 are contact binaries and 1653 are detached ones, 37 planets and brown dwarfs, and 557 planet candidates. We provide the catalogue of all these transit-like features, including false alarms. For the planet candidates, the catalogue gives not only their transit parameters but also the products of their light curve modelling: reduced radius, reduced semi-major axis, and impact parameter, together with a summary of the outcome of follow-up observations when carried out and their current status. For the detached eclipsing binaries, the catalogue provides, in addition to their transit parameters, a simple visual classification. Among the planet candidates whose nature remains unresolved, we estimate that eight (within an error of three) planets are still to be identified. After correcting for geometric and sensitivity biases, we derived planet and brown dwarf occurrences and confirm disagreements with Kepler estimates, as previously reported by other authors from the analysis of the first runs: small-size planets with orbital period less than ten days are underabundant by a factor of three in the CoRoT fields whereas giant planets are overabundant by a factor of two. These preliminary results would however deserve further investigations using the recently released CoRoT light curves that are corrected of the various instrumental effects and a homogeneous analysis of the stellar populations observed by the two missions.
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