To estimate how far changes in the prevalence of electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) use in England have been associated with changes in quit success, quit attempts, and use of licensed medication ...and behavioural support in quit attempts.
Time series analysis of population trends.
Participants came from the Smoking Toolkit Study, which involves repeated, cross sectional household surveys of individuals aged 16 years and older in England. Data were aggregated on about 1200 smokers quarterly between 2006 and 2015. Monitoring data were also used from the national behavioural support programme; during the study, 8 029 012 quit dates were set with this programme.
England.
Prevalence of e-cigarette use in current smokers and during a quit attempt were used to predict quit success. Prevalence of e-cigarette use in current smokers was used to predict rate of quit attempts. Percentage of quit attempts involving e-cigarette use was also used to predict quit attempts involving use of prescription treatments, nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) on prescription and bought over the counter, and use of behavioural support. Analyses involved adjustment for a range of potential confounders.
The success rate of quit attempts increased by 0.098% (95% confidence interval 0.064 to 0.132; P<0.001) and 0.058% (0.038 to 0.078; P<0.001) for every 1% increase in the prevalence of e-cigarette use by smokers and e-cigarette use during a recent quit attempt, respectively. There was no clear evidence for an association between e-cigarette use and rate of quit attempts (β 0.025; 95% confidence interval -0.035 to 0.085; P=0.41), use of NRT bought over the counter (β 0.006; -0.088 to 0.077; P=0.89), use of prescription treatment (β -0.070; -0.152 to 0.013; P=0.10), or use of behavioural support (β -0.013; -0.102 to 0.077; P=0.78). A negative association was found between e-cigarette use during a recent quit attempt and use of NRT obtained on prescription (β -0.098; -0.189 to -0.007; P=0.04).
Changes in prevalence of e-cigarette use in England have been positively associated with the success rates of quit attempts. No clear association has been found between e-cigarette use and the rate of quit attempts or the use of other quitting aids, except for NRT obtained on prescription, where the association has been negative.Study registration The analysis plan was preregistered (https://osf.io/fbgj2/).
Background and Aims
Electronic cigarettes (e‐cigarettes) are rapidly increasing in popularity. Two randomized controlled trials have suggested that e‐cigarettes can aid smoking cessation, but there ...are many factors that could influence their real‐world effectiveness. This study aimed to assess, using an established methodology, the effectiveness of e‐cigarettes when used to aid smoking cessation compared with nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) bought over‐the‐counter and with unaided quitting in the general population.
Design and Setting
A large cross‐sectional survey of a representative sample of the English population.
Participants
The study included 5863 adults who had smoked within the previous 12 months and made at least one quit attempt during that period with either an e‐cigarette only (n = 464), NRT bought over‐the‐counter only (n = 1922) or no aid in their most recent quit attempt (n = 3477).
Measurements
The primary outcome was self‐reported abstinence up to the time of the survey, adjusted for key potential confounders including nicotine dependence.
Findings
E‐cigarette users were more likely to report abstinence than either those who used NRT bought over‐the‐counter odds ratio (OR) = 2.23, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.70–2.93, 20.0 versus 10.1% or no aid (OR = 1.38, 95% CI = 1.08–1.76, 20.0 versus 15.4%). The adjusted odds of non‐smoking in users of e‐cigarettes were 1.63 (95% CI = 1.17–2.27) times higher compared with users of NRT bought over‐the‐counter and 1.61 (95% CI = 1.19–2.18) times higher compared with those using no aid.
Conclusions
Among smokers who have attempted to stop without professional support, those who use e‐cigarettes are more likely to report continued abstinence than those who used a licensed NRT product bought over‐the‐counter or no aid to cessation. This difference persists after adjusting for a range of smoker characteristics such as nicotine dependence.
Background
Heated tobacco products (HTPs) are designed to heat tobacco to a high enough temperature to release aerosol, without burning it or producing smoke. They differ from e‐cigarettes because ...they heat tobacco leaf/sheet rather than a liquid. Companies who make HTPs claim they produce fewer harmful chemicals than conventional cigarettes. Some people report stopping smoking cigarettes entirely by switching to using HTPs, so clinicians need to know whether they are effective for this purpose and relatively safe. Also, to regulate HTPs appropriately, policymakers should understand their impact on health and on cigarette smoking prevalence.
Objectives
To evaluate the effectiveness and safety of HTPs for smoking cessation and the impact of HTPs on smoking prevalence.
Search methods
We searched the Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group's Specialised Register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, and six other databases for relevant records to January 2021, together with reference‐checking and contact with study authors and relevant groups.
Selection criteria
We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) in which people who smoked cigarettes were randomised to switch to exclusive HTP use or a control condition. Eligible outcomes were smoking cessation, adverse events, and selected biomarkers. RCTs conducted in clinic or in an ambulatory setting were deemed eligible when assessing safety, including those randomising participants to exclusively use HTPs, smoke cigarettes, or attempt abstinence from all tobacco. Time‐series studies were also eligible for inclusion if they examined the population‐level impact of heated tobacco on smoking prevalence or cigarette sales as an indirect measure.
Data collection and analysis
We followed standard Cochrane methods for screening and data extraction. Our primary outcome measures were abstinence from smoking at the longest follow‐up point available, adverse events, serious adverse events, and changes in smoking prevalence or cigarette sales. Other outcomes included biomarkers of harm and exposure to toxicants/carcinogens (e.g. NNAL and carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb)). We used a random‐effects Mantel‐Haenszel model to calculate risk ratios (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for dichotomous outcomes. For continuous outcomes, we calculated mean differences on the log‐transformed scale (LMD) with 95% CIs. We pooled data across studies using meta‐analysis where possible.
Main results
We included 13 completed studies, of which 11 were RCTs assessing safety (2666 participants) and two were time‐series studies. We judged eight RCTs to be at unclear risk of bias and three at high risk. All RCTs were funded by tobacco companies. Median length of follow‐up was 13 weeks.
No studies reported smoking cessation outcomes.
There was insufficient evidence for a difference in risk of adverse events between smokers randomised to switch to heated tobacco or continue smoking cigarettes, limited by imprecision and risk of bias (RR 1.03, 95% CI 0.92 to 1.15; I2 = 0%; 6 studies, 1713 participants). There was insufficient evidence to determine whether risk of serious adverse events differed between groups due to very serious imprecision and risk of bias (RR 0.79, 95% CI 0.33 to 1.94; I2 = 0%; 4 studies, 1472 participants). There was moderate‐certainty evidence for lower NNAL and COHb at follow‐up in heated tobacco than cigarette smoking groups, limited by risk of bias (NNAL: LMD −0.81, 95% CI −1.07 to −0.55; I2 = 92%; 10 studies, 1959 participants; COHb: LMD −0.74, 95% CI −0.92 to −0.52; I2 = 96%; 9 studies, 1807 participants). Evidence for additional biomarkers of exposure are reported in the main body of the review.
There was insufficient evidence for a difference in risk of adverse events in smokers randomised to switch to heated tobacco or attempt abstinence from all tobacco, limited by risk of bias and imprecision (RR 1.12, 95% CI 0.86 to 1.46; I2 = 0%; 2 studies, 237 participants). Five studies reported that no serious adverse events occurred in either group (533 participants). There was moderate‐certainty evidence, limited by risk of bias, that urine concentrations of NNAL at follow‐up were higher in the heated tobacco use compared with abstinence group (LMD 0.50, 95% CI 0.34 to 0.66; I2 = 0%; 5 studies, 382 participants). In addition, there was very low‐certainty evidence, limited by risk of bias, inconsistency, and imprecision, for higher COHb in the heated tobacco use compared with abstinence group for intention‐to‐treat analyses (LMD 0.69, 95% CI 0.07 to 1.31; 3 studies, 212 participants), but lower COHb in per‐protocol analyses (LMD −0.32, 95% CI −1.04 to 0.39; 2 studies, 170 participants). Evidence concerning additional biomarkers is reported in the main body of the review.
Data from two time‐series studies showed that the rate of decline in cigarette sales accelerated following the introduction of heated tobacco to market in Japan. This evidence was of very low‐certainty as there was risk of bias, including possible confounding, and cigarette sales are an indirect measure of smoking prevalence.
Authors' conclusions
No studies reported on cigarette smoking cessation, so the effectiveness of heated tobacco for this purpose remains uncertain. There was insufficient evidence for differences in risk of adverse or serious adverse events between people randomised to switch to heated tobacco, smoke cigarettes, or attempt tobacco abstinence in the short‐term. There was moderate‐certainty evidence that heated tobacco users have lower exposure to toxicants/carcinogens than cigarette smokers and very low‐ to moderate‐certainty evidence of higher exposure than those attempting abstinence from all tobacco. Independently funded research on the effectiveness and safety of HTPs is needed.
The rate of decline in cigarette sales accelerated after the introduction of heated tobacco to market in Japan but, as data were observational, it is possible other factors caused these changes. Moreover, falls in cigarette sales may not translate to declining smoking prevalence, and changes in Japan may not generalise elsewhere. To clarify the impact of rising heated tobacco use on smoking prevalence, there is a need for time‐series studies that examine this association.
Smoking prevalence in several high-income countries is steadily declining but remains persistently high in 'lower' socioeconomic position (SEP) groups, contributing to inequities in morbidity and ...mortality. Smoking to relieve stress is a commonly endorsed motive for continued smoking; however, it remains unclear whether smoking to relieve stress has a negative impact on motivation to stop and future quit attempts and if so, whether associations are moderated by SEP. This was an observational study with cross-sectional and prospective survey data from the nationally representative Smoking Toolkit Study in England. A total of 1,135 adult smokers were surveyed at baseline, with 153 (13.5%) respondents followed up at 12 months. Respondents provided information on demographic, social and smoking characteristics. A series of multivariable logistic regression analyses was conducted. Bayes Factors (BFs) were calculated to explore non-significant associations. Smoking to relieve stress was commonly endorsed by respondents from both 'lower' (43.2% 95% CI = 39.4%, 47.0%) and 'higher' (40.5% 95% CI = 35.9%, 45.1%) SEP groups (p = 0.39). Smoking to relieve stress was associated with high motivation to stop at baseline (ORadj = 1.48, 95% CI = 1.03-2.12, p = 0.035) but not significantly with the odds of making a quit attempt at a 12-month follow-up, although the magnitude and direction of the effect was similar to that observed for high motivation to stop (ORadj = 1.49, 95% CI = 0.69-3.20, p = 0.3). Data were insensitive to detect moderation effects of SEP (BF = 0.90 and BF = 1.65, respectively). Smoking to relieve stress is a commonly endorsed motive and is associated with high motivation to stop but not significantly with the odds of making a quit attempt in the next 12 months, although the magnitude and direction of the effect was similar for both outcomes. There was no clear evidence of moderation by SEP, although data were insensitive to distinguish the alternative from the null hypothesis.
To gain a better understanding of the complex relationships of different measures of social position, educational level and income with alcohol consumption in England.
Between March 2014 and April ...2018 data were collected on n = 57,807 alcohol drinkers in England taking part in the Alcohol Toolkit Study (ATS). Respondents completed the AUDIT-C measure of frequency of alcohol consumption, amount consumed on a typical day and binge drinking frequency. The first two questions were used to derive a secondary measure of quantity: average weekly unit consumption. Socio-economic factors measured were: social-grade (based on occupation), employment status, educational qualifications, home and car ownership and income. Models were constructed using ridge regression to assess the contribution of each predictor taking account of high collinearity. Models were adjusted for age, gender and ethnicity.
The strongest predictor of frequency of alcohol consumption was social-grade. Those in the two lowest occupational categories of social grade (e.g. semi-skilled and unskilled manual workers, and unemployed, pensioners, casual workers) has fewer drinking occasions than those in professional-managerial occupations (β = -0.29, 95%CI -0.34 to -0.25; β = -0.31, 95%CI -0.33 to -0.29). The strongest predictor of consumed volume and binge drinking frequency was lower educational attainment: those whose highest qualification was an A-level (i.e. college/high school qualification) drank substantially more on a typical day (β = 0.28, 95%CI 0.25 to 0.31) and had a higher weekly unit intake (β = 3.55, 95%CI 3.04 to 4.05) than those with a university qualification. They also reported a higher frequency of binge drinking (β = 0.11, 95%CI 0.09 to 0.14). Housing tenure was a strong predictor of all drinking outcomes, while employment status and car ownership were the weakest predictors of most outcomes.
Social-grade and educational attainment appear to be the strongest socioeconomic predictors of alcohol consumption indices in England, followed closely by housing tenure. Employment status and car ownership have the lowest predictive power.
Background Decision-making studies show that response selection is influenced by the “effort cost” associated with response alternatives. These effort-cost calculations seem to be mediated by a ...distributed neural circuit including the anterior cingulate cortex and subcortical targets of dopamine neurons. On the basis of evidence of dysfunction in these systems in schizophrenia (SZ), we examined whether effort-cost computations were impaired in SZ patients and whether these deficits were associated with negative symptoms. Methods Effort-cost decision-making performance was evaluated in 44 patients with SZ and 36 demographically matched control subjects. Subjects performed a computerized task where they were presented with a series of 30 trials in which they could choose between making 20 button presses for $1 or 100 button presses for higher amounts (varying from $3 to $7 across trials). Probability of reward receipt was also manipulated to determine whether certain (100%) or uncertain (50%) reward affected effort-based decision-making. Results Patients were less likely than control subjects to select the high-effort response alternative during the 100% probability condition, particularly when the value payoff was highest (i.e., $6 and $7). Patients were also less likely to select the high-effort option on trials after reward in the 50% probability condition. Furthermore, these impairments in effort-cost computations were greatest among patients with elevated negative symptoms. There was no association with haloperidol equivalent dosage. Conclusions The motivational impairments of SZ might be associated with abnormalities in estimating the “cost” of effortful behavior. This increased effort cost might undermine volition.
Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are more likely to develop hyperuricemia and gout. Allopurinol and febuxostat are the most commonly used urate-lowering therapies with established safety ...and efficacy in CKD patients. The objective of the systematic review is to assess the long-term renal outcomes of allopurinol compared with febuxostat in patients with hyperuricemia and CKD or kidney transplantation. PubMed MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, Scopus, and Cochrane CENTRAL databases were searched from inception to December 2019 using the key terms “allopurinol,” “febuxostat,” “xanthine oxidase inhibitors,” “gout suppressants,” “hyperuricemia,” “gout,” “chronic renal insufficiency,” and “kidney transplantation.” Studies with follow-up duration ≥ 12 months were included. Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane Risk Of Bias In Non-randomized Studies-of Interventions (ROBINS-I) tool. Three retrospective observational studies with follow-up duration ranging from 1 to 5 years were reviewed. Febuxostat patients had a significantly higher estimated glomerular filtration rate, reduced risk for renal disease progression, and reduced serum uric acid levels compared with allopurinol patients. All studies had a serious risk of bias. Febuxostat may be more renoprotective than allopurinol in patients with both hyperuricemia and CKD based on evidence from small long-term retrospective studies with serious risk of bias. More methodologically rigorous studies are needed to determine the clinical applicability of these results.
To estimate the “real-world” effectiveness of commonly used aids to smoking cessation in England by using longitudinal data.
We conducted a prospective cohort study in 1560 adult smokers who ...participated in an English national household survey in the period from November 2006 to March 2012, responded to a 6-month follow-up survey, and made at least 1 quit attempt between the 2 measurements. The quitting method was classified as follows: (1) prescription medication (nicotine replacement therapy NRT, bupropion, or varenicline) in combination with specialist behavioral support delivered by a National Health Service Stop Smoking Service; (2) prescription medication with brief advice; (3) NRT bought over the counter; (4) none of these. The primary outcome measure was self-reported abstinence up to the time of the 6-month follow-up survey, adjusted for key potential confounders including cigarette dependence.
Compared with smokers using none of the cessation aids, the adjusted odds of remaining abstinent up to the time of the 6-month follow-up survey were 2.58 (95% CI, 1.48-4.52) times higher in users of prescription medication in combination with specialist behavioral support and 1.55 (95% CI, 1.11-2.16) times higher in users of prescription medication with brief advice. The use of NRT bought over the counter was associated with a lower odds of abstinence (odds ratio, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.49-0.94).
Prescription medication offered with specialist behavioral support and that offered with minimal behavioral support are successful methods of stopping cigarette smoking in England.
Bacterial folliculitis, rosacea, and other common skin conditions have been linked to infestation by Demodex mites (human demodicosis). Currently, there is little guidance for treatment of ...inflammatory conditions associated with demodicosis. Thus, the objective of this review is to evaluate the efficacy and safety of treatments utilized for Demodex infestation. PubMed (1946 to January 2019) and Embase (1947 to January 2019) were searched with the following term combinations: Demodex mites, Demodex folliculitis, demodicosis, Demodex folliculorum, or Demodex brevis and articles evaluating treatment of body surface colonization with Demodex mites were included. Common interventions used for Demodex infestation include metronidazole‐based therapies, permethrin, benzoyl benzoate, crotamiton, lindane, and sulfur. Short courses of metronidazole taken orally have shown efficacy in reducing Demodex density. Additionally, topical administration of permethrin daily or twice daily was shown to be efficacious across multiple studies. Crotamiton and benzyl benzoate were also efficacious treatments. Several therapies were associated with mild‐to‐moderate skin irritation. Due to limited data, no standard of care can be identified at this time. Efficacious treatment options may include permethrin, crotamiton, benzyl benzoate, and oral metronidazole; however, long‐term efficacy has not been established.