There has been a rapid development and utilization of three‐dimensional (3D) printing technologies in engineering, health care, and dentistry. Like many technologies in overlapping disciplines, these ...techniques have proved to be useful and hence incorporated into the forensic sciences. Therefore, this paper describes how the potential of using 3D printing is being recognized within the various sub‐disciplines of forensic science and suggests areas for future applications. For instance, the application can create a permanent record of an object or scene that can be used as demonstrative evidence, preserving the integrity of the actual object or scene. Likewise, 3D printing can help with the visualization of evidential spatial relationships within a scene and increase the understanding of complex terminology within a courtroom. However, while the application of 3D printing to forensic science is beneficial, currently there is limited research demonstrated in the literature and a lack of reporting skewing the visibility of the applications. Therefore, this article highlights the need to create good practice for 3D printing across the forensic science process, the need to develop accurate and admissible 3D printed models while exploring the techniques, accuracy and bias within the courtroom, and calls for the alignment of future research and agendas perhaps in the form of a specialist working group.
There is currently no published empirical evidence‐base demonstrating 3D printing to be an accurate and reliable tool in forensic anthropology, despite 3D printed replicas being exhibited as ...demonstrative evidence in court. In this study, human bones (n = 3) scanned using computed tomography were reconstructed as virtual 3D models (n = 6), and 3D printed using six commercially available printers, with osteometric data recorded at each stage. Virtual models and 3D prints were on average accurate to the source bones, with mean differences from −0.4 to 1.2 mm (−0.4% to 12.0%). Interobserver differences ranged from −5.1 to 0.7 mm (−5.3% to 0.7%). Reconstruction and modeling parameters influenced accuracy, and prints produced using selective laser sintering (SLS) were most consistently accurate. This preliminary investigation into virtual modeling and 3D printer capability provides a novel insight into the accuracy of 3D printing osteological samples and begins to establish an evidence‐base for validating 3D printed bones as demonstrative evidence.
•Ethical concepts and principles relevant to forensic science identified.•Ethical challenges in forensic science and forensic anthropology explored.•Forensic scientists face ethical challenges in ...practice.•The connection between 3D prints and the deceased from legal and cultural perspectives remains unclear.•Nine ethics principles were identified as key for 3D printing in forensic anthropology.•Ethical guidelines are needed to uphold the dignity and respect of the deceased.•Holistic ethics cognition training and structural decision architecture may support ethical practice.
The existing literature contains some exploration of the ethics concerning human remains in forensic and virtual anthropology. However, previous work has stopped short of interrogating the underlying ethical concepts. The question of how people understand and apply these concepts in practice, and what it means to act ethically, remain underexplored. This thematic review explores the ethical considerations that contribute to the creation and use of 3D printed human remains for forensic purposes. The three main branches of ethical theory are outlined to explore how they may apply to forensic practice. Key themes relating to 3D printing human remains in forensic contexts were explored to better understand the ethics landscape, ethical challenges, and the current guidelines in place. Through this thematic review, nine ethics principles were identified as key principles for guiding best practice: anonymity, autonomy, beneficence, consent, context, justice, non-maleficence, proportionality, and transparency. It is suggested that these principles could be incorporated into adaptable guidelines going forward to support ethical practice. The findings also suggest that holistic ethics cognition training may have value in supporting forensic scientists in ethical decision-making, together with procedural and structural design that may promote best practice and reduce cognitive load.
The evaluation of 3D printed osteological materials has highlighted the difficulties associated with accurately representing fine surface details on printed bones. Moreover, there is an increasing ...need for reconstructions to be demonstrably accurate and reliable for use in the criminal justice system. The aim of this study was to assess the surface quality of 3D prints (
n
= 9) that presented with micromorphological alterations from trauma, taphonomy and pathology processes. The archaeological bones were imaged using micro-CT scanning and 3D printed with selective laser sintering (SLS) printing. A multi-method experimental approach subsequently identified: (1) the 3D printed bones to be metrically accurate to within 1.0 mm; (2) good representation of micromorphological surface features overall, albeit with some loss of intricate details, depths, and fine textures that can be important for visual processing; (3) five of the nine 3D printed bones were quantitatively scored as accurate using the visual comparison method; and, (4) low mesh comparison distances (± 0.2 mm) between the original models and the digitised 3D print models. The findings offer empirical data that can be used to underpin 3D printed reconstructions of exhibits for use in courts of law. In addition, an adaptable pathway was presented that can be used to assess 3D print accuracy in future reconstructions.
3D techniques are increasingly being used by forensic scientists in crime reconstruction. The proliferation of 3D techniques, such as 3D imaging and printing being employed across the various stages ...of the forensic science process, means that the use of 3D should be considered as a distinct field within forensic science. ‘3D Forensic Science’ (‘3DFS’) is therefore presented in this paper as a field that brings together a range of 3D techniques and approaches that have been developed within different areas of forensic science for achieving crime reconstructions and interpreting and presenting evidence. It is argued that by establishing this distinct field, defining its boundaries, and developing expertise, best practice and standards, the contribution of 3DFS to the criminal justice system can be maximised and the accuracy and robustness of crime reconstruction endeavours can be enhanced.
•3D forensic science (3DFS) is defined as a distinct interdisciplinary field.•The value of taking a systems level approach to 3DFS.•3DFS encompasses 3D tools and approaches, and human decision-making factors.•Articulating what 3DFS is and what it is for paves a path forward.
There is currently a lack of clear guidance setting out ethical best practice in 3D forensic science broadly, and for 3D printing human remains specifically. This paper presents nine ethical ...principles identified by Carew et al. 4,7 that provide a foundation for establishing ethical practice. The relevance of the nine key normative ethics principles (justice transparency, proportionality, beneficence, context, non-maleficence, anonymity, consent, and autonomy) is outlined, and a hierarchical ethics framework is presented that sets out a synthesis of these nine principles at societal, case, and task levels. This framework sets out key principles to be considered at different stages in the forensic science process and in operational planning, as well as identifying the accountability of key decision makers at each stage. The hierarchical ethics framework provides an adaptive tool that forensic actors can use in practice, to take each ethical principle into consideration and develop best ethical practice, that ensures 3D printed human remains are created and used in an ethical manner.
3D printed reconstructions of skeletal material offer a novel, interactive and increasingly used tool to support courtroom testimony and aid juror interpretation of expert testimony. While research ...has begun to address the accuracy of 3D printed skeletal material, there has been little consideration of the diverse applications of prints to support trauma demonstrations, particularly in relation to gunshot trauma. This study explored the suitability of three printed human crania replicas exhibiting either gunshot trauma or blunt force trauma for identifying whether the prints were sufficiently accurate for the presentation of trauma wounds. The data indicate that metric measurement and qualitative assessment of trauma macromorphology was possible from the 3D printed reconstructions. The findings also offer an indication that it is possible to obtain data around the accuracy of 3D printing bullet wounds and for establishing a bullet path. However, some limitations of prints reconstructed from post-mortem computed tomography (PMCT) data were identified including the observation that not all fracture lines were successfully replicated which indicates that at present virtual models should be used concurrently with 3D prints in court.
•Novel applications for printed human crania trauma were explored.•The degree of concordance between 3D prints of trauma features and original 3D models was good.•Measurement of bullet wound size was possible from printed wounds.•Visual demonstration of bullet paths through printed crania gunshot wounds was possible.•Not all fracture lines were successfully replicated from post-mortem scan data.
3D printed human remains offer an alternative presentation format to traditional photographs, that could be more effective and less emotive. However, the perception of the public regarding key ...questions, such as the use, ownership, and disposal of 3D printed remains in courts of law has not yet been established.
This study explored whether the creation of 3D printed human remains could be considered as an ethical practice by members of the public. A survey comprised of 36 questions was designed to gather responses from members of the public (n = 400) about their attitudes to the creation and use of 3D printed human remains. A majority of respondents believed it was ethical to use 3D prints in courtroom demonstrations (more than 90%) and that this may help jurors to better understand expert testimony over photographs. Respondents also indicated that the context of the case and whether consent had been received from next of kin were important considerations.
The results of this study indicate that there is a recognition that there is a direct connection between 3D printed remains and the individual from whom a print derives, and that there is a clear public interest in ensuring that prints are used ethically and responsibly. Yet there are currently no guidelines for what constitutes best ethical practice for the creation and utilisation of 3D prints. As we look forward, there is a need to identify how best to treat 3D printed remains with dignity and respect in casework in a manner that is also contextually appropriate.
•A large survey (n = 400) was undertaken to explore public insights and attitudes.•Respondents strongly supported the use of 3D printed remains in court.•3D prints were preferred to photographs for helping jurors understand expert testimony.•Respondents were concerned with context and receipt of consent.•Respondents often thought that 3D printed replicas should be treated the same as human remains.•There is currently a lack of formalised guidelines to guide ethical best practices.
Abstract
Modern computed tomography (CT) databases are becoming an accepted resource for the practice and development of identification methods in forensic anthropology. However, the utility of 3D ...models created using free and open-source visualization software such as 3D Slicer has not yet been thoroughly assessed for morphoscopic biological profiling methods where virtual methods of analysis are becoming more common. This paper presents a study that builds on the initial findings from Robles et al. (2020) to determine the feasibility of estimating sex on stereolithic (STL) 3D cranial models produced from CT scans from a modern, living UK population (n = 80) using equation 2 from the Walker’s (2008) morphoscopic method. Kendall’s coefficients of concordance (KCC) indicated substantial agreement using cranial features scores in an inter-observer test and a video-inter-observer test. Fleiss’ Kappa scores showed moderate agreement (0.50) overall between inter-observer sex estimations, and for observer sex estimations in comparison to recorded sexes (0.56). It was found that novice users could virtually employ morphoscopic sex estimation methods effectively on STL 3D cranial models from modern individuals. This study also highlights the potential that digital databases of modern living populations can offer forensic anthropology.
Key points
In academia, funding for conference attendance is limited, and both students and early-career researchers are therefore only able to attend a limited number of conferences. This means that, ...typically, researchers need to choose between attending multiple local and, at times, more affordable conferences, or one or two large, expensive, international conferences. Local and less expensive conferences may be research-specific but will have a smaller audience and lower networking potential. In biological anthropology and bioarchaeology, the majority of these larger annual conferences are held in North America and Western Europe where travel and accommodation costs can be very high for those outside of these regions. These costs, in addition to visa restrictions, reduce the diversity of participants at academic conferences, skewing attendance to students and researchers from the host countries. Not only does this disadvantage individuals outside of the typical host-countries, but it also limits the breadth of academic dialogue, with inclusion in academic conferences determined all too often by financial resources rather than academic value. This paper discusses the demographics and lack of diversity at some of these large conferences and the factors that are known to limit international conference travel. It then presents the benefits of digital presentation methods using Digital Dilemma 2018 as a case study for how digital presentation methods can be combined with physical presentations at minimal cost and time. We hope that this will encourage more conferences to offer a digital presentation option in the future.
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